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1000 KALONYMUS FAMILY MOVES TO MAINZ
Prior to their exclusion from social and political activities in Europe, Jews spread to central Europe, as well as into France and England. While Jewish academies thrived under the Muslim Empire in Iraq during the tenth century, it was not until the beginning of the eleventh century that Jewish institutions were established in central European locations. Around 1000, a family of rabbis named Kalonymus journeyed from Lucca in Italy to Mainz, a prominent German city. Under their leadership rabbinic academies were established with a single-minded focus on the study of the Talmud and Jewish law. Thus began the tradition of Jewish scholarship in Western Europe.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1000 THE KHAZAR KINGDOM ENDS
Jewish persecution in the Byzantine Empire under a number of different rulers caused Jews to seek refuge in Khazaria. Established in the seventh century by the Khazars, a pagan people of Turkish heritage, Khazaria had developed into an assertive, albeit small kingdom. In the mid-eighth century Khazaria's ruler converted to Judaism, along with the entire upper class. To Jews throughout the world, the existence of the Khazar kingdom was evidence that, despite the loss of their homeland in the Middle East, God remembered them and had provided them a new home. Although rulers in the Byzantine Empire made some attempts to snuff out the Khazar kingdom, it was not until the attacks from the Russian force in Kiev in 965 that Khazaria buckled. The year 1000 saw the end of the Khazar kingdom.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1000 RABBENU GERSHOM'S SYNOD IN MAYENCE OUTLAWS POLYGAMY
Around the year 1000, Rabbenu ("Our Master") Gershom ben Judah (960-1040) brought together a Jewish synod in Mayence, France. Gershom's synod, much like the Christian councils of the day, discussed various issues affecting Jewish law and practice, and passed takkanot (ordinances or improvements). The synod outlawed the practice of polygamy, thereby adopting the standard of the Christian culture around them. In Christian Europe, where monogamy was the only form of marriage, the Jews were often judged as immoral because of their polygamy. Despite a deep respect for the forefathers in Scripture (who were polygamous), the Jews at the synod in Mayence upheld Gershom's call for monogamy. In addition, they required the wife's consent before a divorce could be granted.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1038 HAI, THE LAST INFLUENTIAL GAON, DIES
Judaism flourished in Iraq under Muslim rule, and the Jewish academies of Sara and Pumbeditha moved to Baghdad, where they attracted residents from throughout the Muslim world. The academy leaders were called gaons, and they were considered the supreme authority in Jewish law and religious practice. However, beginning in the eleventh century the Islamic Empire broke up into individual Islamic states and Iraq lost its leadership role, causing the gaons of Iraq to lose their role in the Jewish world. As a result, Jewish culture in Iraq became less important among the Jews elsewhere. Hai of Pumbeditha, who died in 1038, appears to have been the last gaon to possess international authority. The academy of Pumbeditha closed two years after his death.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1048 LEO IX BECOMES POPE
Born into a noble family in Alsace, Leo IX (1002-1054) performed military service before studying at Toul, in northeastern France. With the assistance of his relative Emperor Conrad II (990-1039), Leo later was appointed bishop of Toul. Inspired by the religious work of the monastery at Cluny, Leo led reforms in a number of monasteries. In 1048, Leo became Leo IX when he was elected pope. With his assistant, Hildebrand (who would later become Pope Gregory VII), Leo IX traveled throughout Europe to promote a new view of church leadership. He convened numerous councils at Bari, Mainz, Reims, and Pavia to implement his reforms. The councils issued decrees focusing on abuses such as simony, which is the buying and selling of spiritual benefits, and marriage of the clergy. In later years Leo focused on defending Italy from the invading Normans. Leo IX was defeated by the Normans in 1053, the year before he died.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1049 HUGH RULES THE CLUNY MONASTERY AS ABBOT
Though he came from a noble family, Hugh (1024-1109) chose intellectual life over the life of a knight and, at the age of fourteen, joined the monastery at Cluny. Hugh became prior only four years later, and was named abbot of Cluny in 1049. Under Hugh's discipline, Cluny grew to the height of its prosperity, opening new houses of the order in France, Germany, England, Spain, and Italy, and building a beautiful abbey church. During his sixty-year rule at Cluny, Hugh saw the successful founding of the first Cluniac convent for nuns, participated in many church councils, and assisted in the arrangements for the first crusade.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1050 POPE LEO IX ESTABLISHES THE COLLEGE OF CARDINALS
In 1050, Pope Leo IX (1002-1054) altered the church office of cardinally establishing the Sacred College of Cardinals in Rome. Until the eighth century by car-dinal" referred to priests in general and thereafter was used to refer to the priests and deacons advising Rome's bishop. Pope Leo's action in 1050 officially established the office of cardinal, whose members ranked as Roman princes during the Middle Ages. As a governing body of the church, the College of Cardinals became the pope's advisors and assumed administrative control of the Roman Catholic Church in his absence. Today, in addition to electing the pope, the primary work of the Sacred College is administrative. Cardinals are chosen by the pope. Since the Third Lateran Council (1179), the election of a pope is held at a secret conclave of the cardinals.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1054 THE EAST-WEST SCHISM SEPARATES ORTHODOX AND CATHOLIC CHURCHES
The Great Schism of 1054 signaled the separation of the Orthodox Church in the East from the Roman Church in the West. At the heart of their break was the Roman pope's claim to universal authority. The Orthodox Church, which had agreed to honor the pope, believed that church matters should be determined by a council of bishops, and would not grant the pope undisputed dominion. The two churches already had very distinct cultures and theologies. The Eastern church developed into the Eastern, Greek, and Russian Orthodox Churches while the Western Roman Church developed into the Roman Catholic Church. The East and West churches remained on friendly terms until Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade captured Constantinople in 1204.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1056 SAMUEL THE NAGID DIES
Samuel the Nagid (993-1055) was one of the most influential courtier-rabbis in the history of the Muslim Empire. Samuel gained his prominent position in the Muslim court of Granada, one of the small kingdoms of Islamic Spain, as a result of his uncanny ability to write in the difficult-to-master, elaborate style of Arabic required for diplomatic communications. In addition to earning him a role advising the prince of Granada, Samuel's character and political prowess made him, in effect, Granada's ruler. Samuel probably had military responsibilities as well. He also wrote many Jewish law and Hebrew grammar books and composed Hebrew poetry before his death around 1055. While many Muslims held him in high esteem, some were threatened by his authority. Jewish society revered Samuel for his knowledge, skill, elegant manner, and loyalty to his people.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1059 NICHOLAS DECREES THAT CARDINALS ELECT THE POPE During the rule of Pope Nicholas II (1010-1061), significant steps were taken to establish procedures for electing future popes. In 1059, Nicholas decreed that the cardinals of the church were responsible for filling the office via election. The edict also made allowances for unusual situations. For example, the cardinals could meet outside of Rome if they so desired, and if an appropriate candidate could not be found within the city of Rome they could look elsewhere. And finally, in the event that war or other events kept the pope outside of Rome, he would still exercise and carry full authority. By making the pope less identified with Rome alone, he became more connected to the entire Western church.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1065 RASHI RETURNS TO TROYES
Rabbi Solomon bar Isaac (1040-1105), known as Rashi, was born in Troyes in present-day France and was educated in the Talmudic academies of Worms and Mainz, Germany. Returning to Troyes in 1065, he opened his own Talmudic academy. During Rashi's lifetime, the Talmud—a collection of legal arguments, folklore, stories, and proverbs—became the main focus of study and meditation among Jews. Desiring to assist students in their study, Rashi and other leaders wrote commentaries on the Talmud. Rashi's commentaries on the Bible and the Talmud are distinguished by such clarity that they still remain authoritative today.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1066 JEWS ARE MASSACRED IN GRANADA
In 1066, the residents of Granada, a traditionally tolerant region in Muslim Spain, massacred the Jews living in their midst. Earlier, Rabbi Samuel the Nagid (993-1055) had become the primary advisor to the prince of Granada and had functioned as the de facto ruler of the small kingdom. He had successfully been able to deal with the jealousy many of the Muslims felt toward him. However, his son Yehosef, who succeeded him at his death, was one of those killed in the massacre. Although it was an isolated event in Muslim Spain, the massacre was a reminder that the Jews were regarded as aliens.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1066 WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR IS CROWNED KING OF ENGLAND Victorious in battle during the Norman Conquest of England, William I of Normandy (1028-1087), known as William the Conqueror, was crowned king of England on December 25, 1066. Counted among the greatest and worst of men, William was respected for his pious conduct and reverent support of the church, and he was dreaded because of his sword and his will. Yet, because of his claims to the throne and able leadership, he obtained the loyalty of the pope, the church, and much of the English nobility. William's rule, a unique mix of Saxon practices (already familiar in England) and bold new Norman ideas, created a lasting foundation for England's continued progress. In the end, William's endeavor to bring Norman and Christian ideals to England had enduring benefits, making him one of England's most significant reformers. William I reigned as king of the Norman dynasty until 1087.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1066 JEWS BEGIN SETTLING IN ENGLAND
As Jews traveled into central and Western Europe, eventually some moved to England. The first Jews most likely came to England from mainland Europe with William the Conqueror (1028-1087) in 1066. William's son, King Henry I (1068-1135), gave the Jews expanded business opportunities in London. By the time King Henry II (1133-1189) took the English throne, the Jewish population had grown in a number of cities throughout England, and many Jews were active participants in financing various endeavors, including royal projects.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1070 SOLOMON IBN GABIROL WRITES FONS VITAE
Around 1070, Solomon ibn Gabirol (1021-1070), a Jewish poet and philosopher from Malaga, Spain, completed Fons Vitae. Drawing heavily on the ideas of Plato (429-347 BC), Fons Vitae explores the universe as a cosmic battle between what Plato called "form" and "matter." The work had a great impact on a number of Catholic scholars and eventually became well read throughout Christian Europe, though most readers were unaware that the volume was authored by a Jew.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1071 SELJUK TURKS FROM ASIA CONQUER ASIA MINOR
Christian pilgrimages to the Holy Land were common during much of the medieval period. But in the eleventh century trouble in the Byzantine Empire made travel increasingly dangerous. Deaths of key rulers and leadership dissensions threatened the stability of the empire from within. Around this time Seljuk Turks, Islamic converts from Central Asia, were establishing an empire that spread from Mesopotamia to Syria to Palestine to Egypt. They were considered even more formidable than the Normans in the West, who simultaneously were conquering southern Italy. In 1071, the Seljuk Turks moved north and defeated Christian Byzantine forces at the Battle of Mazikert, near Lake Van in Armenia. The resulting request of Byzantine rulers to the pope for support in their fight against the Seljuk Turks contributed to the commencement of the Crusades.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1073 GREGORY VII BECOMES POPE
Gregory (1023-1085) began his life of church service as a Benedictine monk, taking the name Hildebrand, meaning "brilliant flame." In 1073, Hildebrand became Pope Gregory VII. Known for his spirit of reformation, Gregory made an attempt to unite the Eastern and Western churches but lacked support. He then focused on renewal of the Western church and on the development of church law. Gregory endeavored to enforce celibacy decrees for the clergy and opposed Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV (1050-1106) for choosing the church officials within his realm. Gregory's influence on the church's canon law shaped its policies for many years to come.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1077 EMPEROR HENRY IV SUBMITS TO THE POPE OVER INVESTITURE
When Pope Gregory VII (1023-1085) forbade the appointing of clergy by laymen, he thereby prevented the Holy Roman emperor, Henry IV (1050-1106) of Germany, from interfering in the selection of German church officials. However, Henry claimed the practice was an imperial divine right and sought Gregory's removal. In retaliation, the pope excommunicated Henry, whereupon imperial church officials, dreading their own exclusion, wavered in support of their king. Isolated and desiring reinstatement, Henry submitted himself before the pope at Canossa, in northern Italy, in 1077. Though Gregory heard Henry's plea and absolved him, scheming ensued and Henry deposed Gregory in 1084. Gregory's ban on lay investiture later was upheld by the Concordat of Worms in 1122.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1093 ANSELM BECOMES ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY
Born in Aosta, Italy, Anselm (1033-1109) entered a monastery in France and eventually became its abbot. In 1093, at the request of King William II (1057-1100) of England, Anselm left France to become archbishop of Canterbury. As archbishop, Anselm played a leading role in the academic reformation of the eleventh and twelfth centuries and worked to implement the reforms of Pope Gregory VII (1023-1085) in the English church. This, however, led to conflict with William II. Anselm refused to let the king choose church officials and was forced to leave England. King Henry I (1068-1135) asked him to return to Canterbury, but he too disagreed with Anselm, exiling him a second time. When Anselm finally compromised with the king and returned to England, he spent his remaining years enforcing clerical celibacy and other reforms of the pope. Anselm remained archbishop of Canterbury until his death in 1109.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1095 POPE URBAN II LAUNCHES FIRST CRUSADE
With the fall of Asia Minor to the Seljuk Turks, Alexius Comnenus (1048-1118), the Byzantine emperor, made an urgent request to the pope and Western rulers to send soldiers to help recover the lost territory. In addition, the Turks, in control of Jerusalem, were hindering Christian pilgrims from visiting the Holy Land. In answer to the emperor's appeal, Pope Urban II (1042-1099) announced the First Crusade in a sermon he delivered at Clermont, France, on November 27, 1095, at the Council of Clermont. In response, the crowd shouted, "God wills it!" This became the battle cry of the campaign. Mustering five thousand men, the First Crusade set out for Constantinople, eventually making its way to Jerusalem. The Crusaders captured Jerusalem in 1099.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1096 CRUSADERS MASSACRE JEWS IN RHINELAND
As enthusiasm mounted for the First Crusade, the motivation to conquer the unbelievers in control of Jerusalem spilled over toward the unbelievers closer to home: the Jews. The mobs sweeping across Europe on their way to the Holy Land found their first victims among the Jews of the Rhineland (in modern-day Germany). Massacres and forced baptisms resulted. Rather than be murdered, large numbers of Jews committed suicide, with the fathers first killing their families and then themselves. The ancient prosperous Jewish communities of the Rhineland were destroyed. This was just the beginning of the indignities wrought upon the Jews by the Crusaders.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
THE BEST SERMON EVER?
November 27, 1095
If you had just listened to a sermon on the will of God that was the greatest sermon you had ever heard, what would you do?
The place was Clermont, France, where Pope Urban II had called a church council. On November 27, 1095, the final day of the council, Urban II addressed the thousands assembled. Historians have deemed his sermon as possibly the most effective of all time.
The burning issue for Urban II was that in 1076, the Seljukian Turks had captured Jerusalem from the Arabs, making life intolerable for Christians living in Jerusalem or going there on pilgrimages.
The eloquent Urban II spoke in his native French to the assembled crowds:
Ye men of the Franks ... To you our words are spoken, and by you our message will be passed on ... God orders it.
From the borders of Jerusalem and the city of Constantinople evil tidings have come to my ears.... An accursed race, estranged from God, has invaded the lands of the Christians in the East and has depopulated them by fire, steel and revenge.....These Turks have led away many Christians as captives, to their own country; they have torn down the churches of Christ or used them for their own rites. In some they stable their horses....
Who will avenge these wrongs, unless it be you who have won glory in arms?
... If you would save your souls, then come forward to the defense of Christ..........
Labor for everlasting reward. . . . You will earn the right to absolution from all your sins, and heaven is assured to any who may fall in this worthy undertaking. ... The wealth of your enemies will be yours; ye shall plunder their treasures and return home victorious.....Take up your arms, valiant sons, and go--
God guarding you....
The crowd rose as one, chanting, "God wills it! God wills it!"
The pope called back, "It is the will of God!... You are soldiers of the cross. Wear on your breasts or shoulders the blood-red sign of the cross. Wear it as a token that his help will never fail you, as the pledge of a vow never to be recalled."
Thousands immediately took the vow and sewed a cross on their garments. The message raced throughout Europe by word of mouth. The next year the First Crusade left for Jerusalem with the rallying cry, "God wills it!"
The next two hundred years, the period of the Crusades, are the most embarrassing of all church history. Although the Crusaders were able to capture Jerusalem and hold it for a period of time, the Near East in general and the Muslims in particular have never forgotten the murder, rape, and pillage that characterized the Crusades. Probably never in history have so many calling themselves Christians been so misdirected in their cause. Their actions demonstrated that most of them knew nothing of the faith they claimed to represent.
And it all began with an eloquent sermon proclaiming the will of God.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1098 ANSELM WRITES CUR DEUS HOMO
Anselm (1033-1109), archbishop of Canterbury from 1093 until his death, was an important intellectual leader of his day. He was not as systematic as the medieval scholars who followed in his footsteps; most of his writings take the form of dialogues with his students. He wrote his most famous work, Cur Deus Homo (Why God Became Man), in 1098. In it, Anselm developed his understanding of the Atonement, man's reconciliation to God through Christ. Believing that the Atonement was essential to satisfy the majesty of God, Anselm's writing shifted away from the older view, held since the time of Origen (185-254), that the purpose of Christ's death was to pay a ransom to the devil.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1099 CRUSADERS CAPTURE JERUSALEM
Having set out to free the Holy Land from the grip of the Seljuk Turks, the First Crusade successfully captured Jerusalem on July 15, 1099. Their victory was bloody, with a horrendous massacre of Muslims within Jerusalem. Godfrey of Bouillon (1060-1100), who was selected to be defender of the Holy Sepulcher, did not live through the next year. His brother Baldwin (1058-1118) established the Kingdom of Jerusalem and was crowned king on Christmas Day 1100. The conquest of Jerusalem, along with Antioch and Tripoli, gave the Christians footholds of power in the region. These victories, however, would not be permanent.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
Prior to their exclusion from social and political activities in Europe, Jews spread to central Europe, as well as into France and England. While Jewish academies thrived under the Muslim Empire in Iraq during the tenth century, it was not until the beginning of the eleventh century that Jewish institutions were established in central European locations. Around 1000, a family of rabbis named Kalonymus journeyed from Lucca in Italy to Mainz, a prominent German city. Under their leadership rabbinic academies were established with a single-minded focus on the study of the Talmud and Jewish law. Thus began the tradition of Jewish scholarship in Western Europe.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1000 THE KHAZAR KINGDOM ENDS
Jewish persecution in the Byzantine Empire under a number of different rulers caused Jews to seek refuge in Khazaria. Established in the seventh century by the Khazars, a pagan people of Turkish heritage, Khazaria had developed into an assertive, albeit small kingdom. In the mid-eighth century Khazaria's ruler converted to Judaism, along with the entire upper class. To Jews throughout the world, the existence of the Khazar kingdom was evidence that, despite the loss of their homeland in the Middle East, God remembered them and had provided them a new home. Although rulers in the Byzantine Empire made some attempts to snuff out the Khazar kingdom, it was not until the attacks from the Russian force in Kiev in 965 that Khazaria buckled. The year 1000 saw the end of the Khazar kingdom.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1000 RABBENU GERSHOM'S SYNOD IN MAYENCE OUTLAWS POLYGAMY
Around the year 1000, Rabbenu ("Our Master") Gershom ben Judah (960-1040) brought together a Jewish synod in Mayence, France. Gershom's synod, much like the Christian councils of the day, discussed various issues affecting Jewish law and practice, and passed takkanot (ordinances or improvements). The synod outlawed the practice of polygamy, thereby adopting the standard of the Christian culture around them. In Christian Europe, where monogamy was the only form of marriage, the Jews were often judged as immoral because of their polygamy. Despite a deep respect for the forefathers in Scripture (who were polygamous), the Jews at the synod in Mayence upheld Gershom's call for monogamy. In addition, they required the wife's consent before a divorce could be granted.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1038 HAI, THE LAST INFLUENTIAL GAON, DIES
Judaism flourished in Iraq under Muslim rule, and the Jewish academies of Sara and Pumbeditha moved to Baghdad, where they attracted residents from throughout the Muslim world. The academy leaders were called gaons, and they were considered the supreme authority in Jewish law and religious practice. However, beginning in the eleventh century the Islamic Empire broke up into individual Islamic states and Iraq lost its leadership role, causing the gaons of Iraq to lose their role in the Jewish world. As a result, Jewish culture in Iraq became less important among the Jews elsewhere. Hai of Pumbeditha, who died in 1038, appears to have been the last gaon to possess international authority. The academy of Pumbeditha closed two years after his death.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1048 LEO IX BECOMES POPE
Born into a noble family in Alsace, Leo IX (1002-1054) performed military service before studying at Toul, in northeastern France. With the assistance of his relative Emperor Conrad II (990-1039), Leo later was appointed bishop of Toul. Inspired by the religious work of the monastery at Cluny, Leo led reforms in a number of monasteries. In 1048, Leo became Leo IX when he was elected pope. With his assistant, Hildebrand (who would later become Pope Gregory VII), Leo IX traveled throughout Europe to promote a new view of church leadership. He convened numerous councils at Bari, Mainz, Reims, and Pavia to implement his reforms. The councils issued decrees focusing on abuses such as simony, which is the buying and selling of spiritual benefits, and marriage of the clergy. In later years Leo focused on defending Italy from the invading Normans. Leo IX was defeated by the Normans in 1053, the year before he died.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1049 HUGH RULES THE CLUNY MONASTERY AS ABBOT
Though he came from a noble family, Hugh (1024-1109) chose intellectual life over the life of a knight and, at the age of fourteen, joined the monastery at Cluny. Hugh became prior only four years later, and was named abbot of Cluny in 1049. Under Hugh's discipline, Cluny grew to the height of its prosperity, opening new houses of the order in France, Germany, England, Spain, and Italy, and building a beautiful abbey church. During his sixty-year rule at Cluny, Hugh saw the successful founding of the first Cluniac convent for nuns, participated in many church councils, and assisted in the arrangements for the first crusade.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1050 POPE LEO IX ESTABLISHES THE COLLEGE OF CARDINALS
In 1050, Pope Leo IX (1002-1054) altered the church office of cardinally establishing the Sacred College of Cardinals in Rome. Until the eighth century by car-dinal" referred to priests in general and thereafter was used to refer to the priests and deacons advising Rome's bishop. Pope Leo's action in 1050 officially established the office of cardinal, whose members ranked as Roman princes during the Middle Ages. As a governing body of the church, the College of Cardinals became the pope's advisors and assumed administrative control of the Roman Catholic Church in his absence. Today, in addition to electing the pope, the primary work of the Sacred College is administrative. Cardinals are chosen by the pope. Since the Third Lateran Council (1179), the election of a pope is held at a secret conclave of the cardinals.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1054 THE EAST-WEST SCHISM SEPARATES ORTHODOX AND CATHOLIC CHURCHES
The Great Schism of 1054 signaled the separation of the Orthodox Church in the East from the Roman Church in the West. At the heart of their break was the Roman pope's claim to universal authority. The Orthodox Church, which had agreed to honor the pope, believed that church matters should be determined by a council of bishops, and would not grant the pope undisputed dominion. The two churches already had very distinct cultures and theologies. The Eastern church developed into the Eastern, Greek, and Russian Orthodox Churches while the Western Roman Church developed into the Roman Catholic Church. The East and West churches remained on friendly terms until Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade captured Constantinople in 1204.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1056 SAMUEL THE NAGID DIES
Samuel the Nagid (993-1055) was one of the most influential courtier-rabbis in the history of the Muslim Empire. Samuel gained his prominent position in the Muslim court of Granada, one of the small kingdoms of Islamic Spain, as a result of his uncanny ability to write in the difficult-to-master, elaborate style of Arabic required for diplomatic communications. In addition to earning him a role advising the prince of Granada, Samuel's character and political prowess made him, in effect, Granada's ruler. Samuel probably had military responsibilities as well. He also wrote many Jewish law and Hebrew grammar books and composed Hebrew poetry before his death around 1055. While many Muslims held him in high esteem, some were threatened by his authority. Jewish society revered Samuel for his knowledge, skill, elegant manner, and loyalty to his people.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1059 NICHOLAS DECREES THAT CARDINALS ELECT THE POPE During the rule of Pope Nicholas II (1010-1061), significant steps were taken to establish procedures for electing future popes. In 1059, Nicholas decreed that the cardinals of the church were responsible for filling the office via election. The edict also made allowances for unusual situations. For example, the cardinals could meet outside of Rome if they so desired, and if an appropriate candidate could not be found within the city of Rome they could look elsewhere. And finally, in the event that war or other events kept the pope outside of Rome, he would still exercise and carry full authority. By making the pope less identified with Rome alone, he became more connected to the entire Western church.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1065 RASHI RETURNS TO TROYES
Rabbi Solomon bar Isaac (1040-1105), known as Rashi, was born in Troyes in present-day France and was educated in the Talmudic academies of Worms and Mainz, Germany. Returning to Troyes in 1065, he opened his own Talmudic academy. During Rashi's lifetime, the Talmud—a collection of legal arguments, folklore, stories, and proverbs—became the main focus of study and meditation among Jews. Desiring to assist students in their study, Rashi and other leaders wrote commentaries on the Talmud. Rashi's commentaries on the Bible and the Talmud are distinguished by such clarity that they still remain authoritative today.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1066 JEWS ARE MASSACRED IN GRANADA
In 1066, the residents of Granada, a traditionally tolerant region in Muslim Spain, massacred the Jews living in their midst. Earlier, Rabbi Samuel the Nagid (993-1055) had become the primary advisor to the prince of Granada and had functioned as the de facto ruler of the small kingdom. He had successfully been able to deal with the jealousy many of the Muslims felt toward him. However, his son Yehosef, who succeeded him at his death, was one of those killed in the massacre. Although it was an isolated event in Muslim Spain, the massacre was a reminder that the Jews were regarded as aliens.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1066 WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR IS CROWNED KING OF ENGLAND Victorious in battle during the Norman Conquest of England, William I of Normandy (1028-1087), known as William the Conqueror, was crowned king of England on December 25, 1066. Counted among the greatest and worst of men, William was respected for his pious conduct and reverent support of the church, and he was dreaded because of his sword and his will. Yet, because of his claims to the throne and able leadership, he obtained the loyalty of the pope, the church, and much of the English nobility. William's rule, a unique mix of Saxon practices (already familiar in England) and bold new Norman ideas, created a lasting foundation for England's continued progress. In the end, William's endeavor to bring Norman and Christian ideals to England had enduring benefits, making him one of England's most significant reformers. William I reigned as king of the Norman dynasty until 1087.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1066 JEWS BEGIN SETTLING IN ENGLAND
As Jews traveled into central and Western Europe, eventually some moved to England. The first Jews most likely came to England from mainland Europe with William the Conqueror (1028-1087) in 1066. William's son, King Henry I (1068-1135), gave the Jews expanded business opportunities in London. By the time King Henry II (1133-1189) took the English throne, the Jewish population had grown in a number of cities throughout England, and many Jews were active participants in financing various endeavors, including royal projects.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1070 SOLOMON IBN GABIROL WRITES FONS VITAE
Around 1070, Solomon ibn Gabirol (1021-1070), a Jewish poet and philosopher from Malaga, Spain, completed Fons Vitae. Drawing heavily on the ideas of Plato (429-347 BC), Fons Vitae explores the universe as a cosmic battle between what Plato called "form" and "matter." The work had a great impact on a number of Catholic scholars and eventually became well read throughout Christian Europe, though most readers were unaware that the volume was authored by a Jew.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1071 SELJUK TURKS FROM ASIA CONQUER ASIA MINOR
Christian pilgrimages to the Holy Land were common during much of the medieval period. But in the eleventh century trouble in the Byzantine Empire made travel increasingly dangerous. Deaths of key rulers and leadership dissensions threatened the stability of the empire from within. Around this time Seljuk Turks, Islamic converts from Central Asia, were establishing an empire that spread from Mesopotamia to Syria to Palestine to Egypt. They were considered even more formidable than the Normans in the West, who simultaneously were conquering southern Italy. In 1071, the Seljuk Turks moved north and defeated Christian Byzantine forces at the Battle of Mazikert, near Lake Van in Armenia. The resulting request of Byzantine rulers to the pope for support in their fight against the Seljuk Turks contributed to the commencement of the Crusades.
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1073 GREGORY VII BECOMES POPE
Gregory (1023-1085) began his life of church service as a Benedictine monk, taking the name Hildebrand, meaning "brilliant flame." In 1073, Hildebrand became Pope Gregory VII. Known for his spirit of reformation, Gregory made an attempt to unite the Eastern and Western churches but lacked support. He then focused on renewal of the Western church and on the development of church law. Gregory endeavored to enforce celibacy decrees for the clergy and opposed Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV (1050-1106) for choosing the church officials within his realm. Gregory's influence on the church's canon law shaped its policies for many years to come.
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1077 EMPEROR HENRY IV SUBMITS TO THE POPE OVER INVESTITURE
When Pope Gregory VII (1023-1085) forbade the appointing of clergy by laymen, he thereby prevented the Holy Roman emperor, Henry IV (1050-1106) of Germany, from interfering in the selection of German church officials. However, Henry claimed the practice was an imperial divine right and sought Gregory's removal. In retaliation, the pope excommunicated Henry, whereupon imperial church officials, dreading their own exclusion, wavered in support of their king. Isolated and desiring reinstatement, Henry submitted himself before the pope at Canossa, in northern Italy, in 1077. Though Gregory heard Henry's plea and absolved him, scheming ensued and Henry deposed Gregory in 1084. Gregory's ban on lay investiture later was upheld by the Concordat of Worms in 1122.
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1093 ANSELM BECOMES ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY
Born in Aosta, Italy, Anselm (1033-1109) entered a monastery in France and eventually became its abbot. In 1093, at the request of King William II (1057-1100) of England, Anselm left France to become archbishop of Canterbury. As archbishop, Anselm played a leading role in the academic reformation of the eleventh and twelfth centuries and worked to implement the reforms of Pope Gregory VII (1023-1085) in the English church. This, however, led to conflict with William II. Anselm refused to let the king choose church officials and was forced to leave England. King Henry I (1068-1135) asked him to return to Canterbury, but he too disagreed with Anselm, exiling him a second time. When Anselm finally compromised with the king and returned to England, he spent his remaining years enforcing clerical celibacy and other reforms of the pope. Anselm remained archbishop of Canterbury until his death in 1109.
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1095 POPE URBAN II LAUNCHES FIRST CRUSADE
With the fall of Asia Minor to the Seljuk Turks, Alexius Comnenus (1048-1118), the Byzantine emperor, made an urgent request to the pope and Western rulers to send soldiers to help recover the lost territory. In addition, the Turks, in control of Jerusalem, were hindering Christian pilgrims from visiting the Holy Land. In answer to the emperor's appeal, Pope Urban II (1042-1099) announced the First Crusade in a sermon he delivered at Clermont, France, on November 27, 1095, at the Council of Clermont. In response, the crowd shouted, "God wills it!" This became the battle cry of the campaign. Mustering five thousand men, the First Crusade set out for Constantinople, eventually making its way to Jerusalem. The Crusaders captured Jerusalem in 1099.
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1096 CRUSADERS MASSACRE JEWS IN RHINELAND
As enthusiasm mounted for the First Crusade, the motivation to conquer the unbelievers in control of Jerusalem spilled over toward the unbelievers closer to home: the Jews. The mobs sweeping across Europe on their way to the Holy Land found their first victims among the Jews of the Rhineland (in modern-day Germany). Massacres and forced baptisms resulted. Rather than be murdered, large numbers of Jews committed suicide, with the fathers first killing their families and then themselves. The ancient prosperous Jewish communities of the Rhineland were destroyed. This was just the beginning of the indignities wrought upon the Jews by the Crusaders.
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THE BEST SERMON EVER?
November 27, 1095
If you had just listened to a sermon on the will of God that was the greatest sermon you had ever heard, what would you do?
The place was Clermont, France, where Pope Urban II had called a church council. On November 27, 1095, the final day of the council, Urban II addressed the thousands assembled. Historians have deemed his sermon as possibly the most effective of all time.
The burning issue for Urban II was that in 1076, the Seljukian Turks had captured Jerusalem from the Arabs, making life intolerable for Christians living in Jerusalem or going there on pilgrimages.
The eloquent Urban II spoke in his native French to the assembled crowds:
Ye men of the Franks ... To you our words are spoken, and by you our message will be passed on ... God orders it.
From the borders of Jerusalem and the city of Constantinople evil tidings have come to my ears.... An accursed race, estranged from God, has invaded the lands of the Christians in the East and has depopulated them by fire, steel and revenge.....These Turks have led away many Christians as captives, to their own country; they have torn down the churches of Christ or used them for their own rites. In some they stable their horses....
Who will avenge these wrongs, unless it be you who have won glory in arms?
... If you would save your souls, then come forward to the defense of Christ..........
Labor for everlasting reward. . . . You will earn the right to absolution from all your sins, and heaven is assured to any who may fall in this worthy undertaking. ... The wealth of your enemies will be yours; ye shall plunder their treasures and return home victorious.....Take up your arms, valiant sons, and go--
God guarding you....
The crowd rose as one, chanting, "God wills it! God wills it!"
The pope called back, "It is the will of God!... You are soldiers of the cross. Wear on your breasts or shoulders the blood-red sign of the cross. Wear it as a token that his help will never fail you, as the pledge of a vow never to be recalled."
Thousands immediately took the vow and sewed a cross on their garments. The message raced throughout Europe by word of mouth. The next year the First Crusade left for Jerusalem with the rallying cry, "God wills it!"
The next two hundred years, the period of the Crusades, are the most embarrassing of all church history. Although the Crusaders were able to capture Jerusalem and hold it for a period of time, the Near East in general and the Muslims in particular have never forgotten the murder, rape, and pillage that characterized the Crusades. Probably never in history have so many calling themselves Christians been so misdirected in their cause. Their actions demonstrated that most of them knew nothing of the faith they claimed to represent.
And it all began with an eloquent sermon proclaiming the will of God.
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1098 ANSELM WRITES CUR DEUS HOMO
Anselm (1033-1109), archbishop of Canterbury from 1093 until his death, was an important intellectual leader of his day. He was not as systematic as the medieval scholars who followed in his footsteps; most of his writings take the form of dialogues with his students. He wrote his most famous work, Cur Deus Homo (Why God Became Man), in 1098. In it, Anselm developed his understanding of the Atonement, man's reconciliation to God through Christ. Believing that the Atonement was essential to satisfy the majesty of God, Anselm's writing shifted away from the older view, held since the time of Origen (185-254), that the purpose of Christ's death was to pay a ransom to the devil.
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1099 CRUSADERS CAPTURE JERUSALEM
Having set out to free the Holy Land from the grip of the Seljuk Turks, the First Crusade successfully captured Jerusalem on July 15, 1099. Their victory was bloody, with a horrendous massacre of Muslims within Jerusalem. Godfrey of Bouillon (1060-1100), who was selected to be defender of the Holy Sepulcher, did not live through the next year. His brother Baldwin (1058-1118) established the Kingdom of Jerusalem and was crowned king on Christmas Day 1100. The conquest of Jerusalem, along with Antioch and Tripoli, gave the Christians footholds of power in the region. These victories, however, would not be permanent.
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