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303 MASS CONVERSION OF ARMENIA BEGINS
Armenia was a buffer nation between the Persian and Roman Empires. As a result, it had a turbulent history. The great missionary to Armenia was named Gregory the Illuminator (240-332). Gregory seems to have been of Armenian aristocracy and to have become a Christian while in exile in Cappadocia. Returning to Armenia, he converted his relative, King Tiridates III, to the Christian faith and baptized him on January 6, 303. When the nobles of Armenia followed their king in converting to the Christian faith, the general populace did as well. Many pagan priests were converted as well, with many of them entering the Christian ministry. Gregory became bishop of the newly organized Armenian church. His son succeeded him as bishop and was present at the Council of Nicea in 325.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
THE GREAT PERSECUTION
February 23, 303
A reign that didn't end well.
When Diocletian became emperor of the Roman Empire in 284, Christians were encouraged because of rumors that his wife, Prisca, and daughter Valeria were believers. And, in fact, during the first nineteen years of his reign, Diocletian was relatively tolerant of the church. In civil affairs he had great organizational skills. To improve the management of the Roman Empire, he established his tetrarchy of two senior emperors called augusti (himself and Maximian) and two junior emperors called caesares (Galerius, his son-in-law, and Constantius Chlorus, the father of Constantine).
Gradually, life became more difficult for Christians. Deciding that religious unity would strengthen the empire, Diocletian published edicts in an attempt to guarantee the supremacy of the Roman state religion by eliminating Christianity.
On February 23, 303, the day of the Roman feast of Terminalia, Diocletian issued an edict that all copies of Scripture were to be burned, all churches destroyed and their property confiscated. Meetings for Christian worship were forbidden. The next day additional measures were announced: Christians who resisted no longer would have legal recourse and were to be deprived of all honors and public office. Thus the Great Persecution began, although it was not uniformly enforced by the four emperors. Many Christians first learned of the edicts as they watched their churches go up in smoke.
A third edict ordered the arrest of Christian clergy. This resulted in a state crisis, because the prisons filled and real criminals were crowded out. To deal with this problem, the next edict stated that Christian prisoners would be released if they made sacrifices to the Roman gods. The prison guards could compel them by any means possible to perform these sacrifices. In nearly 304, an edict was posted insisting that everyone in the Roman Empire—clergy and laity alike—sacrifice to the Roman gods. Every Christian was put in jeopardy.
In 305, Diocletian and Maximian abdicated in favor of Constantius and Galerius, effectively ending the persecution in the West since Constantius was not interested in enforcing the edicts. The persecution continued in the East until 311, when shortly before his death, Galerius relented and issued an edict of limited toleration, granting freedom of worship if Christians did not disturb the peace.
The years of the Great Persecution officially ended with a second edict of toleration, this time by Constantine in 313. The Edict of Milan was a great historical event for it granted religious liberty to Christians and pagans alike. Eusebius, the first church historian and a contemporary of these events, recorded the words of Constantine's edict: "We resolved ... to grant both to the Christians and to all men freedom to follow the religion which they choose.....For by this means.... the divine favor toward us which we
have already experienced in many matters will continue sure through all time."
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
303 EMPEROR DIOCLETIAN PERSECUTES CHRISTIANS
Born in a humble family in Dalmatia (now part of Yugoslavia), Diocletian (245-313) was proclaimed emperor by the Roman Imperial Guard in 284 following the murder of Emperor Numerian. An able organizer, Diocletian established a new system of governance for the Roman Empire in which four rulers shared power. Believing that the old Roman religion would reinforce the unity of the empire, Diocletian issued four edicts in 303 which brought the most vicious of all persecutions upon the Christians of the empire. Diocletian ordered the army purged of all Christians, the destruction of church buildings, the prohibition of Christian worship, and the burning of Bibles. Bishops were arrested, imprisoned, tortured and in many cases killed. In addition, thousands of Christians were tortured and killed. The persecution continued even after the abdication of Diocletian in 305, until the Edict of Toleration in 311.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
311 THE EDICT OF TOLERATION
The most vicious persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire began in 303 under Emperor Diocletian (245-313). When Diocletian abdicated his rule in the East, he was replaced by his son-in-law Galerius, who then intensified the effort to eradicate Christianity. On April 30, 311, while on his deathbed, Galerius—perhaps convinced that his fatal illness was God's judgment on him—issued the Edict of Toleration, which pardoned Christians and allowed them to resume practicing their faith. Soon the prisons were opened and thousands of Christians were released, bearing the scars of their torture. Galerius died five days after issuing his edict.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
THE ERA OF THE CHRISTIAN ROMAN EMPIRE 312—590
The Emperor Constantine is one of the major figures of Christian history. After his conversion, Christianity moved swiftly throughout the empire, from the seclusion of the catacombs to the prestige of palaces. Christians were a minority at the beginning of the fourth century but by the century's end, the faith had grown to be the empire's established religion. Thus, the Christian church was joined to the power of the state and assumed a moral responsibility for society. To serve the state, it refined its doctrine and developed its structure. Monks arose to protest this secularization of the faith, but when barbarians shattered the government in the western half of the empire, even Benedictines enlisted as missionaries to the pagans.
BRUCE L. SHELLEY
313—Oldest bridge built over the Rhine
360—Books begin to replace scrolls
383—Romans conquer Gaul and Spain
411—Augustine writes City of God
443—Attila becomes Hun ruler
455—Vandals sack Rome
542-94—Plague kills half of Europe
593—Printing press invented in China
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
312 CONSTANTINE CONVERTS TO CHRISTIANITY
Constantine (285-337), the son of Constantius Chlorus, the western co-emperor of the Roman Empire, was proclaimed emperor by his troops at his father's death in 306. However, he had a rival for the throne in Maxentius. On October 26, 312, the night before the decisive battle between the two, Constantine saw a flaming cross in the sky with the words, "In this Sign Conquer." Later that night in a dream, Christ commanded Constantine to have his soldiers mark their shields with the letters chi and rho, the first two letters of the word Christ in Greek. Constantine did as instructed and was victorious in the ensuing battle, becoming the undisputed emperor of the West. In 313, Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, granting Christians freedom of worship. Because of Constantine, Christianity became the religion of the Roman Empire.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
312 THE DONATIST SCHISM BEGINS
Donatists took their name from Donatus (d. 355) who was bishop of Carthage from 313 to 355. Beginning in 312, Donatus led a protest against the practices of the Catholic Church. In particular, he and his followers charged that certain Catholic bishops had handed over Bibles to the civil authorities to be burned during Emperor Diocletian's (245-313) persecution, an act they viewed as apostasy. Since these apostate bishops were ordaining Catholic pastors, the Donatists claimed themselves, not the Catholics, to be the true church. They also argued that the validity of the sacraments depended upon the morality of the pastor administering them. Donatists became a majority in many areas of North Africa but were vigorously opposed by Augustine (354-130), the bishop of Hippo.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
313 THE EDICT OF MILAN BRINGS CHRISTIAN FREEDOM
In 312, Constantine (285-337) became the uncontested ruler of the Western Roman Empire when he defeated Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge. In January 313 in Milan, he met with Licinius, the emperor of the East. They determined to reverse the Roman government's previous policy toward the church. Their proclamation, known as the Edict of Milan, was that all persons, including Christians, were free to worship as they wished. Christians also were to receive compensation and the return of previously confiscated property. A new day had dawned for the Christians of the Roman Empire.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
THE AMBIGUOUS EMPEROR
October 26, 312
Constantine was the first Christian emperor of the Roman Empire, but was he really a Christian?
Constantine was the son of Constantius Chlorus, the western emperor of the Roman Empire, and his concubine, Helena. When his father died in 306, Constantine was proclaimed emperor by his father's troops. Meanwhile, back in Rome the Praetorian Guard proclaimed Maxentius as Western emperor.
On October 26, 312, Constantine and his troops reached a point about five miles north of Rome, prepared to do battle with Maxentius the following day. That evening he saw a flaming cross in the sky with the Greek words "In this Sign Conquer." Then that night he had a dream in which Christ commanded him to have his soldiers mark their shields with the letters chi and rho, the first and second letters of the Greek word for Christ. The many Christians in his army were greatly encouraged the next morning when he ordered his troops to put the inscription on their shields.
In Rome, Maxentius spent the night before the battle performing sacrifices and divinations. The impending battle was shaping up to be between the army of Christ and the army of the Roman gods.
Maxentius decided to do battle directly in front of the Tiber River with the Milvian Bridge behind him, approximately a mile from the gates of Rome. According to Eusebius, a church historian who lived during the fourth century, the outnumbered forces of Constantine advanced "invoking the God of heaven and his son and word our Lord Jesus Christ, the saviour of all." Maxentius was thrown into the Tiber along with many of his troops, and Constantine entered Rome as the undisputed emperor of the western empire.
The following year Constantine met with Licinius, emperor of the eastern empire, and issued the Edict of Milan, granting Christians freedom of worship along with compensation and return of confiscated church property.
An uneasy peace existed between Constantine and Licinius until 323, when Constantine defeated Licinius in battle, becoming the sole emperor. He then founded the city of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) as capital of his empire.
Constantine is most remembered for his church policies. In addition to the Edict of Milan, he allowed bishops to settle civil lawsuits, he closed courts of law and workshops on Sundays, and he banned gladiatorial games. He also took an active roll in church affairs, summoning the Council of Nicea in 325.
But there was a darker side to Constantine. In 326, he had his wife, the sister of Maxentius, and one son executed under suspicious circumstances. He also never relinquished his position as chief priest of the pagan state religion, and his coins proclaimed his allegiance to the sun god. He delayed Christian baptism until shortly before his death. Yet whatever his personal spiritual state, it was because of Constantine that Christianity became the religion of the Roman Empire.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
314 THE COUNCIL OF ARDES MEETS
The Donatists were unhappy with a 313 ruling against them by the Roman Council's eighteen bishops. Therefore, they appealed to Emperor Constantine (285-337) who in response called the Council of Ardes in Southern France in 314. This was the first time in history that Christians appealed a church decision to a secular ruler. The Council turned out to be the forerunner of the Council of Nicea (325). Present were thirty-three bishops from Gaul (modern-day France), Sicily, Italy, North Africa, and Britain, as well as thirteen presbyters and twenty-three deacons. The Council ruled against the Donatists, excommunicating Donatus (d. 355) their leader. In addition, the Council issued twenty-two decisions, including the directive that Easter be celebrated on the same day everywhere, and that participants in races or gladiatorial fights be excommunicated.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
318 ARIAN CONTROVERSY BEGINS
Trained in Antioch, Arius (250-336) became a presbyter in Alexandria, Egypt. In about 318, he entered into a dispute with Alexander (d. 328), the bishop of Alexandria, over whether Jesus Christ was co-eternal with God. Alexander taught, "God is always, the Son is always" and that the Son is "the unbegotten begotten." Arius' view regarding the Son was, "There was when He was not." At a church council in Alexandria, Arius and his followers were deposed and excommunicated. However, Arius refused to accept this judgment and appealed directly to the citizens of Alexandria and to bishops who had been his fellow students in Antioch. The resulting public demonstrations and letter-writing campaign by the sympathetic bishops challenged the unity of the church. As a result, Emperor Constantine (285-337) intervened and called the Council of Nicea (325).
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
320 PACHOMIUS BEGINS FORMING MONASTIC COMMUNITIES Pachomius (287-346), an Egyptian, became a Christian as a result of the kindnesses shown him by the Christians of Thebes while he served there as a soldier. After his discharge from the army in 313, he was baptized and for a few years lived as a solitary monk. Then, about 320, he settled in the abandoned village of Tabennisi to fulfill his vision of an ascetic community patterned after the early Christians in Jerusalem. As a result, Pachomius is considered the father of communal monasticism. By the time of his death in 346, Pachomius was abbot general over thousands of monks. He established eleven monasteries, nine for men and two for women. He emphasized the need for complete obedience to superiors and the communal ownership of goods.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
323 EUSEBIUS COMPLETES ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY
The son of humble parents, Eusebius (260-340) was born and educated in Caesarea. In 314, he was elected bishop of Caesarea. Considered to be the father of church history, Eusebius' most well known work is his Ecclesiastical History, which he finished in 323. It is an invaluable history of the church, containing records of many events not found elsewhere in existing documents. When the Arian controversy erupted in 318, Eusebius criticized Bishop Alexander (d. 328) of Alexandria for being too quick to condemn Arius (250-336). In response, an Anti-Arian council was held in January 325 in Antioch, where Eusebius was provisionally excommunicated. Later that year he was exonerated at the Council of Nicea. However, Eusebius signed the Nicene Creed only under pressure from Emperor Constantine (285-337) as he was never fully sympathetic to it.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
325 THE NICENE CREED IS WRITTEN
Arius (250-336) was a pastor from Alexandria, Egypt, who taught that God is unique and unknowable and cannot share his substance with anyone. He therefore proclaimed Jesus to be divine but not God. The bishop of Alexandria realized that for Jesus to be the Savior he had to be truly God. Soon the city erupted in riots over this theological issue. In 325, when Emperor Constantine (285-337) realized that the security of his empire and the unity of the church were in danger, he called the Council of Nicea in Asia Minor to resolve the issue. After debating, the bishops denounced Arianism and formulated a creed describing Jesus as "true God from true God, begotten not made, of one substance with the father." All but two of more than three hundred bishops signed the statement, and those two were exiled with Arius.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
326 HELENA MAKES HER PILGRIMAGE TO JERUSALEM
Helena (248-327), Constantine's (285-337) mother, had lowly origins. The daughter of an innkeeper, she probably was the legal concubine of Constantius, who would become the joint emperor of the West from 293 to 306. In 292, Constantius put her away so he could marry the daughter of Emperor Maximian to improve his chances to become a Caesar himself. When Helena's son Constantine was proclaimed emperor by his troops in 306, she was restored to a place of honor. Following Constantine's conversion in 312, Helena also put her faith in Jesus Christ. In about 326, she made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem where her name is connected with many of the churches constructed on sites associated with the life of Christ. She personally supervised the building of a church at the site of Jesus' tomb
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
328 FRUMENTIUS IS SHIPWRECKED ON THE ETHIOPIAN COAST Early in the fourth century Frumentius (300-380) and his brother Aedesius, two Christians from Tyre, were shipwrecked on the coast of Ethiopia. They were taken as slaves to the court of the Ethiopian king in Axum. Gaining the king's favor, they were appointed to high offices and given the opportunity to preach the gospel freely. Many people converted to Christianity, and a fledgling church was formed. The brothers strengthened it by bringing additional Christians from Egypt. Aedesius eventually returned to Tyre. In about 341, Frumentius went to Alexandria to see Athanasius (296-373) the patriarch. (Patriarch was a term applied to the bishops of Rome, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria.) When Frumentius requested that he send priests to Ethiopia, Athanasius instead consecrated Frumentius as bishop of Axum. Frumentius returned to Ethiopia, serving as bishop until his death.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
330 CONSTANTINE DEDICATES CONSTANTINOPLE
When Constantine (285-337) became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire, he realized that Rome was too far away from the eastern empire to deal with the problems there. At first he considered making the ancient city of Troy his capital, but decided instead on the site of Byzantium. Its location on the Bosporus Strait had military advantages since it had access to both the Rhine and the Danube, as well as to Persia. On May 11, 330, Constantine dedicated the new "Rome," calling it Constantinople, meaning "city of Constantine" (now Istanbul). Even though Constantinople was created under the Roman Empire, historians view its establishment as the beginning of the Byzantine Empire and a first step leading to the later division between the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodoxy.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
A LIFE TRANSFORMED
November 13, 354
God is in the business of changing lives, and Augustine is a prime example.
Augustine was born on November 13, 354, in Numidia, North Africa (modern-day Algeria). His father was a minor noble who desired above all else that Augustine become cultured. His devout but domineering mother wanted above all else that her son become a Christian.
As a boy, Augustine was the exact opposite of what his mother desired. To her dismay, he became an accomplished thief and liar. As a student he added sexual promiscuity to his catalog of sins, eventually taking a mistress. In spite of his lifestyle, Augustine excelled academically and eventually became a professor.
Ambition brought Augustine to Milan, the imperial capital, in 384, as a teacher of rhetoric. There he met Ambrose, the bishop of Milan, who challenged him to consider Christianity.
Then came a day in 386 that changed Augustine forever. He was at his villa in Milan with his mother when Pontitian, an African Christian and an officer in the imperial household, stopped by for a visit. As they talked, Pontitian casually picked up a book lying on the table and was surprised to see that it was the epistles of Paul. That discovery prompted Pontitian to relate how he had come to put his faith in Christ. He also told how two friends of his had decided to join a monastery, their fiancees also becoming Christians and dedicating themselves to virginity. Hearing the story of the two young women committing themselves to chastity pierced Augustine to the core, and he realized his addiction to sex.
After Pontitian left, Augustine ran out of the house, overcome by his sin. In despair, he flung himself on the ground underneath a fig tree. There he babbled, "How long, how long? Tomorrow and tomorrow? Why not now? Why should there not be an end to my uncleanness now?"
Suddenly Augustine heard the plaintive voice of an unknown little girl singing a song with the simple words, "Take up and read." To Augustine these words came as the voice of God himself. Augustine jumped up and ran to get the book containing Paul's epistles. Opening its pages, his eyes fell on Romans 13:13-14: "We should be decent and true in everything we do, so that everyone can approve of our behavior. Don't participate in wild parties and getting drunk, or in adultery and immoral living, or in fighting and jealousy. But let the Lord Jesus Christ take control of you, and don't think of ways to indulge your evil desires."
Augustine later wrote, "Instantly as I reached the end of this sentence, it was as if the light of peace was poured into my heart, and all the shades of doubt faded away." He immediately went into the house and told his mother that her prayers had been answered.
A changed man, Augustine went on to become the bishop of Hippo in North Africa and the greatest theologian between the apostle Paul and John Calvin.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
341 ULPHILAS, TRANSLATOR OF GOTHIC BIBLE, BECOMES BISHOP
Ulphilas (311-381), a Goth from a Germanic tribe living in the Balkans, spent much of his early life in Constantinople. About 341, he was consecrated as a bishop by Eusebius of Nicomedia (d. 341), the bishop of Constantinople. He then returned to his native land as a missionary. He evangelized among the Goths living in Moesia (present-day Bulgaria). He translated the Bible into Gothic for the first time but omitted 1 and 2 Kings, believing that they would have a negative influence on the Goths who were already fond of war. Eusebius of Nicomedia led him into Arianism, denying that God the Son was eternal. Because of Ulphilas' influence, the Goths were Arians for centuries to come.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
358 BASIL THE GREAT FOUNDS A MONASTERY
Born in Cappadocia (present-day eastern Turkey), Basil (329-379) was the oldest child of Christian parents. He, his brother Gregory of Nyssa (330-395), and Basil's close friend Gregory of Nazianzus (330-389) became known as the Cappadocian Fathers, theologians who had a profound impact on the development of Christian theology. After studying at the University of Athens, Basil returned to Cappadocia and in approximately 358 founded a monastery in Annesia. His Rules for the monastery became famous. It included monastic regulations and answers to practical questions. In 370, Basil became bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, devoting himself to making monasticism a core part of the church, performing works of charity, and above all, defending the orthodoxy of the Council of Nicea against Arianism.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
363 JULIAN THE APOSTATE, THE LAST PAGAN EMPEROR, DIES Roman Emperor Julian the Apostate (331-363) died on June 26, 363. The nephew of Constantine the Great (285-337)—the Roman Empire's first Christian emperor—Julian received his nickname, the Apostate, because he denounced the Christian faith in which he had been raised. Julian succeeded his cousin Constantius as emperor and wasted no time reestablishing homage to the Greek gods. He removed Christians from government service, banned them from teaching in Roman schools or serving in the military, and taxed them heavily. In addition to hindering the lives of Christians, Julian renewed pagan rituals, reopened old temples, and supported pagan sacrifices. His changes were the final imperial effort to return the Roman Empire to pagan worship. All subsequent Roman emperors were at least nominal Christians.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
A DECEITFUL EMPEROR
June 27, 363
Born in 331, Julian was the nephew of Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor of the Roman Empire, who had legalized Christianity. When Julian was six years old, Constantine died and the empire was divided among his three sons, Constantine II, Constans, and Constantius, all Julian's cousins. After wars between the sons, Constantius, also a Christian, emerged victorious as emperor.
Julian had received a Christian education but had secretly rejected it, seeing hypocrisy in the lives of his supposedly Christian teachers. He was baptized and even ordained to serve as a lector, one who read the Scriptures in worship services, but the austere Christianity that was forced on him made him a rebel. He studied in Athens, where he enthusiastically embraced the teachings of Homer, Plato, and Aristotle. While in Athens he became a convert to ancient Greek idolatry. He told his private confidants that he was in daily communication with Jupiter, Minerva, Apollo, and Hercules, who assured him of their personal special protection. However, he publicly concealed his politically incorrect commitment to the Greek gods.
In 356, Emperor Constantius made Julian the governor of Gaul (modern France), where Julian had distinguished himself in battle. Meanwhile, Constantius was in Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and was threatened by the Persians. He ordered some of Julian's troops to come to his aid. Not wanting to march the two thousand miles to Constantinople, Julian's troops mutinied against Constantius' orders and proclaimed Julian as emperor instead. This act of outright rebellion made civil war appear imminent, but Constantius died before it could occur, leaving Julian the undisputed emperor. It was not until just before Constantius died that Julian publicly revealed his allegiance to the Greek gods.
As emperor, Julian immediately set about restoring paganism, earning him the name of Julian the Apostate. In addition to levying heavy taxes on Christians, Julian also removed them from military and government offices and prohibited them from teaching school. He reopened the pagan temples and reinstituted the priesthood and the sacrifices.
In an effort to discredit the Christian holy places in Jerusalem, Julian decided to rebuild the Jewish Temple—not because he had any affection for the Jews, but he wanted to upstage the Christians. However, when the workers were laying the foundation, they struck underground deposits of gas that exploded and burned, ending the project.
After reigning for eight years, Julian went to war against the Persians. The Christians dreaded his return and were relieved to hear that he had died of battle wounds. On June 27, 363—the day after Julian's death—the army elected Jovian, a Christian general, as the new emperor. When news arrived that Julian had died and that his replacement was a Christian, great rejoicing filled the churches.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
366 DAMASUS I BECOMES POPE
Born in Rome of Spanish parents, Damasus (304—384) was made a deacon by Pope Liberius (d. 366). At the pope's death, a fierce controversy broke out over whether his supporters or those of his rival Ursinus would succeed him. Damasus was elected pope, but Emperor Valentinian had to suppress Ursinus' supporters who had set him up as a rival pope. Damasus played a vital role in restraining Arianism, the view that denied Christ's deity by asserting that Jesus was created by God the Father. He also commissioned his secretary, Jerome (345-419), to prepare a reliable Latin translation of the Bible. The result was Jerome's Vulgate, which became the authoritative Bible of the Roman Catholic Church.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
367 ATHANASIUS DEFINES THE NEW TESTAMENT
Athanasius (295-373), bishop of Alexandria, Egypt, devoted his life to defending orthodoxy against Arianism. The church's struggle with heresy increased the urgency to distinguish between truly inspired writings and questionable ones. The canon (Greek for "standard") was generally identified as writings of apostolic origin and those writings used in the churches. By the end of the second century most churches recognized the four Gospels, Acts, and Paul's epistles. The disputed books were Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude, and Revelation. In his widely circulated Easter Letter of 367, Bishop Athanasius named the twenty-seven books that make up the New Testament as we know it, stating that those were the only books to be regarded as Christian Scripture. Although his proclamation was not immediately adopted universally, over time the church gradually came to accept the books on Athanasius' list.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
372 MARTIN OF TOURS BECOMES BISHOP
Born in Pannonia (modern-day Hungary) of pagan parents, Martin (335-397) was enlisted by his father in the Roman army at the age of fifteen. When he was eighteen the plight of a naked beggar moved him to tear his own coat into two parts, giving half to the beggar. Subsequently, he had a vision of Christ wearing half of his cloak. Martin was baptized as a result of his vision. After obtaining a military discharge, he joined Hilary of Poitiers (315-368) in founding the first monastery in Gaul (modern-day France). Elected bishop of Tours in 372, he continued to practice and promote monastic life as well as rural evangelization. Due to his efforts, many churches were established throughout the countryside of Gaul.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
378 GREGORY OF NANZIANZUS BECOMES BISHOP OF CONSTANTINOPLE
The son of the Catholic bishop of Nanzianzus, Cappadocia (now central Turkey), Gregory of Nanzianzus (330-389) was educated in Caesarea (in Cappadocia). While there he met Basil the Great (330-379), and the two men finished their education in Athens, Greece. Gregory followed Basil into the monastic life, studying the Bible in seclusion for most of two decades before being ordained in 362 as co-bishop of Nanzianzus alongside his father. In 374, Gregory returned to monastic life only to be called out again in 378 to be bishop of Constantinople. Second in influence only to Rome, Constantinople was the seat of Catholic orthodoxy in an age characterized by heresy. Among the Cappadocian Fathers, Gregory was christened "The Theologian" for his articulate defense against the prevailing Arian heresy that Jesus was inferior to God because he could not have existed before God "begat" him.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
379 GREGORY OF NYSSA CHAMPIONS ORTHODOXY
Gregory of Nyssa (330-394) spent the first five decades of his life in the shadow of his older brother and teacher, Basil the Great (330-379). Like Basil, Gregory was born in Caesarea in Cappadocia (modern-day Turkey) and received a rigorous classical education. After practicing secular rhetoric and law, Gregory devoted himself to studying theology in a monastery. In 370, Basil, then bishop of Caesarea, made Gregory the bishop of Nyssa. As bishop, Gregory was distinguished for defending the orthodox Nicene faith against Arian heresies, but was removed for administrative failure. When Basil died in 379, Gregory took up his brother's mantle as the Catholic Church's champion of orthodoxy. After Gregory's death around 394, the depth and influence of his theological writings earned him the title "Father of the Cappadocian Fathers."
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
380 THE PALESTINIAN TALMUD IS COMPLETED
The Talmud is a collection of rabbinical laws, judicial decisions, and commentary on the law of Moses. The Talmud consists of two parts: the Mishnah, which is a collection of the oral laws of ancient Judaism, and the Gemara, which is a commentary on the Mishnah. Following the destruction of the Jewish Temple in 70, the Pharisees began putting their oral laws into writing. Rabbi Judah ha-Nasi (Judah the Prince) completed this process by 217. The Gemara, the additional comments added later, completed the Talmud. There are two versions of the Talmud: the Palestinian and the Babylonian. The Palestinian Talmud was completed about 380. It is about a third the length of the Babylonian, which was completed about 500 and has been the more accepted text for subsequent Judaism
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
385 BISHOP AMBROSE DEFIES THE EMPRESS
Ambrose (339-397), bishop of Milan, was a deeply spiritual man and one of the strongest leaders the church had known. Known for his intellect and oratory, he was influential in the conversion of his young admirer Augustine (354-430). The mother of Emperor Valentinian, Empress Justina, was the true power behind the throne in the Western Roman Empire. She was an Arian, believing that God the Son was not eternal, while Bishop Ambrose held to the orthodox teachings of the Council of Nicea. In 385, Empress Justina demanded that Ambrose surrender his cathedral for the use of Arian congregations. When he refused, she ordered soldiers to surround the cathedral. Many expected a massacre. Inside the cathedral the congregation raised their voices in song, and the soldiers inexplicably dispersed. Imperial force had been met with impenetrable faith.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
386 AUGUSTINE CONVERTS TO JESUS CHRIST
In Milan, Italy, in July 386, Aurelius Augustine (354-430) found faith in Jesus Christ and was freed of his enslavement to sexual immorality. That day, as a visitor testified of his conversion to Christianity, Augustine sensed the immense weight of his sin. After the visitor left, he flung himself on the ground in the garden. There he heard a child singing, "Take up and read." Thinking these words to be from God, Augustine took up a book of Paul's epistles. His eyes fell on Romans 13:13-14. The sentence "Let the Lord Jesus Christ take control of you, and don't think of ways to indulge your evil desires" pierced his soul and lit a flame of faith in Christ that never went out. His was one of the church's most celebrated conversions because he proved to be one of history's most prolific Christian thinkers.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
398 CHRYSOSTOM BECOMES BISHOP OF CONSTANTINOPLE
John Chrysostom was born about 347 in Antioch into a Christian family of above average means. He first studied to be an attorney but then became interested in monasticism. After living as a hermit for ten years, he returned to Antioch where he was ordained as a deacon in 381 and a priest in 386. John Chrysostom was the great preacher of his day. His eloquence earned him the name Chrysostom, meaning "golden mouthed." In 398, he reluctantly was made bishop of Constantinople. In that position, his uncompromising zeal to reform the church raised the ire of the empress and many clergy. As a result, he was banished twice and died in 407 in transit to a place of exile.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
Armenia was a buffer nation between the Persian and Roman Empires. As a result, it had a turbulent history. The great missionary to Armenia was named Gregory the Illuminator (240-332). Gregory seems to have been of Armenian aristocracy and to have become a Christian while in exile in Cappadocia. Returning to Armenia, he converted his relative, King Tiridates III, to the Christian faith and baptized him on January 6, 303. When the nobles of Armenia followed their king in converting to the Christian faith, the general populace did as well. Many pagan priests were converted as well, with many of them entering the Christian ministry. Gregory became bishop of the newly organized Armenian church. His son succeeded him as bishop and was present at the Council of Nicea in 325.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
THE GREAT PERSECUTION
February 23, 303
A reign that didn't end well.
When Diocletian became emperor of the Roman Empire in 284, Christians were encouraged because of rumors that his wife, Prisca, and daughter Valeria were believers. And, in fact, during the first nineteen years of his reign, Diocletian was relatively tolerant of the church. In civil affairs he had great organizational skills. To improve the management of the Roman Empire, he established his tetrarchy of two senior emperors called augusti (himself and Maximian) and two junior emperors called caesares (Galerius, his son-in-law, and Constantius Chlorus, the father of Constantine).
Gradually, life became more difficult for Christians. Deciding that religious unity would strengthen the empire, Diocletian published edicts in an attempt to guarantee the supremacy of the Roman state religion by eliminating Christianity.
On February 23, 303, the day of the Roman feast of Terminalia, Diocletian issued an edict that all copies of Scripture were to be burned, all churches destroyed and their property confiscated. Meetings for Christian worship were forbidden. The next day additional measures were announced: Christians who resisted no longer would have legal recourse and were to be deprived of all honors and public office. Thus the Great Persecution began, although it was not uniformly enforced by the four emperors. Many Christians first learned of the edicts as they watched their churches go up in smoke.
A third edict ordered the arrest of Christian clergy. This resulted in a state crisis, because the prisons filled and real criminals were crowded out. To deal with this problem, the next edict stated that Christian prisoners would be released if they made sacrifices to the Roman gods. The prison guards could compel them by any means possible to perform these sacrifices. In nearly 304, an edict was posted insisting that everyone in the Roman Empire—clergy and laity alike—sacrifice to the Roman gods. Every Christian was put in jeopardy.
In 305, Diocletian and Maximian abdicated in favor of Constantius and Galerius, effectively ending the persecution in the West since Constantius was not interested in enforcing the edicts. The persecution continued in the East until 311, when shortly before his death, Galerius relented and issued an edict of limited toleration, granting freedom of worship if Christians did not disturb the peace.
The years of the Great Persecution officially ended with a second edict of toleration, this time by Constantine in 313. The Edict of Milan was a great historical event for it granted religious liberty to Christians and pagans alike. Eusebius, the first church historian and a contemporary of these events, recorded the words of Constantine's edict: "We resolved ... to grant both to the Christians and to all men freedom to follow the religion which they choose.....For by this means.... the divine favor toward us which we
have already experienced in many matters will continue sure through all time."
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
303 EMPEROR DIOCLETIAN PERSECUTES CHRISTIANS
Born in a humble family in Dalmatia (now part of Yugoslavia), Diocletian (245-313) was proclaimed emperor by the Roman Imperial Guard in 284 following the murder of Emperor Numerian. An able organizer, Diocletian established a new system of governance for the Roman Empire in which four rulers shared power. Believing that the old Roman religion would reinforce the unity of the empire, Diocletian issued four edicts in 303 which brought the most vicious of all persecutions upon the Christians of the empire. Diocletian ordered the army purged of all Christians, the destruction of church buildings, the prohibition of Christian worship, and the burning of Bibles. Bishops were arrested, imprisoned, tortured and in many cases killed. In addition, thousands of Christians were tortured and killed. The persecution continued even after the abdication of Diocletian in 305, until the Edict of Toleration in 311.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
311 THE EDICT OF TOLERATION
The most vicious persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire began in 303 under Emperor Diocletian (245-313). When Diocletian abdicated his rule in the East, he was replaced by his son-in-law Galerius, who then intensified the effort to eradicate Christianity. On April 30, 311, while on his deathbed, Galerius—perhaps convinced that his fatal illness was God's judgment on him—issued the Edict of Toleration, which pardoned Christians and allowed them to resume practicing their faith. Soon the prisons were opened and thousands of Christians were released, bearing the scars of their torture. Galerius died five days after issuing his edict.
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THE ERA OF THE CHRISTIAN ROMAN EMPIRE 312—590
The Emperor Constantine is one of the major figures of Christian history. After his conversion, Christianity moved swiftly throughout the empire, from the seclusion of the catacombs to the prestige of palaces. Christians were a minority at the beginning of the fourth century but by the century's end, the faith had grown to be the empire's established religion. Thus, the Christian church was joined to the power of the state and assumed a moral responsibility for society. To serve the state, it refined its doctrine and developed its structure. Monks arose to protest this secularization of the faith, but when barbarians shattered the government in the western half of the empire, even Benedictines enlisted as missionaries to the pagans.
BRUCE L. SHELLEY
313—Oldest bridge built over the Rhine
360—Books begin to replace scrolls
383—Romans conquer Gaul and Spain
411—Augustine writes City of God
443—Attila becomes Hun ruler
455—Vandals sack Rome
542-94—Plague kills half of Europe
593—Printing press invented in China
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312 CONSTANTINE CONVERTS TO CHRISTIANITY
Constantine (285-337), the son of Constantius Chlorus, the western co-emperor of the Roman Empire, was proclaimed emperor by his troops at his father's death in 306. However, he had a rival for the throne in Maxentius. On October 26, 312, the night before the decisive battle between the two, Constantine saw a flaming cross in the sky with the words, "In this Sign Conquer." Later that night in a dream, Christ commanded Constantine to have his soldiers mark their shields with the letters chi and rho, the first two letters of the word Christ in Greek. Constantine did as instructed and was victorious in the ensuing battle, becoming the undisputed emperor of the West. In 313, Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, granting Christians freedom of worship. Because of Constantine, Christianity became the religion of the Roman Empire.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
312 THE DONATIST SCHISM BEGINS
Donatists took their name from Donatus (d. 355) who was bishop of Carthage from 313 to 355. Beginning in 312, Donatus led a protest against the practices of the Catholic Church. In particular, he and his followers charged that certain Catholic bishops had handed over Bibles to the civil authorities to be burned during Emperor Diocletian's (245-313) persecution, an act they viewed as apostasy. Since these apostate bishops were ordaining Catholic pastors, the Donatists claimed themselves, not the Catholics, to be the true church. They also argued that the validity of the sacraments depended upon the morality of the pastor administering them. Donatists became a majority in many areas of North Africa but were vigorously opposed by Augustine (354-130), the bishop of Hippo.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
313 THE EDICT OF MILAN BRINGS CHRISTIAN FREEDOM
In 312, Constantine (285-337) became the uncontested ruler of the Western Roman Empire when he defeated Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge. In January 313 in Milan, he met with Licinius, the emperor of the East. They determined to reverse the Roman government's previous policy toward the church. Their proclamation, known as the Edict of Milan, was that all persons, including Christians, were free to worship as they wished. Christians also were to receive compensation and the return of previously confiscated property. A new day had dawned for the Christians of the Roman Empire.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
THE AMBIGUOUS EMPEROR
October 26, 312
Constantine was the first Christian emperor of the Roman Empire, but was he really a Christian?
Constantine was the son of Constantius Chlorus, the western emperor of the Roman Empire, and his concubine, Helena. When his father died in 306, Constantine was proclaimed emperor by his father's troops. Meanwhile, back in Rome the Praetorian Guard proclaimed Maxentius as Western emperor.
On October 26, 312, Constantine and his troops reached a point about five miles north of Rome, prepared to do battle with Maxentius the following day. That evening he saw a flaming cross in the sky with the Greek words "In this Sign Conquer." Then that night he had a dream in which Christ commanded him to have his soldiers mark their shields with the letters chi and rho, the first and second letters of the Greek word for Christ. The many Christians in his army were greatly encouraged the next morning when he ordered his troops to put the inscription on their shields.
In Rome, Maxentius spent the night before the battle performing sacrifices and divinations. The impending battle was shaping up to be between the army of Christ and the army of the Roman gods.
Maxentius decided to do battle directly in front of the Tiber River with the Milvian Bridge behind him, approximately a mile from the gates of Rome. According to Eusebius, a church historian who lived during the fourth century, the outnumbered forces of Constantine advanced "invoking the God of heaven and his son and word our Lord Jesus Christ, the saviour of all." Maxentius was thrown into the Tiber along with many of his troops, and Constantine entered Rome as the undisputed emperor of the western empire.
The following year Constantine met with Licinius, emperor of the eastern empire, and issued the Edict of Milan, granting Christians freedom of worship along with compensation and return of confiscated church property.
An uneasy peace existed between Constantine and Licinius until 323, when Constantine defeated Licinius in battle, becoming the sole emperor. He then founded the city of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) as capital of his empire.
Constantine is most remembered for his church policies. In addition to the Edict of Milan, he allowed bishops to settle civil lawsuits, he closed courts of law and workshops on Sundays, and he banned gladiatorial games. He also took an active roll in church affairs, summoning the Council of Nicea in 325.
But there was a darker side to Constantine. In 326, he had his wife, the sister of Maxentius, and one son executed under suspicious circumstances. He also never relinquished his position as chief priest of the pagan state religion, and his coins proclaimed his allegiance to the sun god. He delayed Christian baptism until shortly before his death. Yet whatever his personal spiritual state, it was because of Constantine that Christianity became the religion of the Roman Empire.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
314 THE COUNCIL OF ARDES MEETS
The Donatists were unhappy with a 313 ruling against them by the Roman Council's eighteen bishops. Therefore, they appealed to Emperor Constantine (285-337) who in response called the Council of Ardes in Southern France in 314. This was the first time in history that Christians appealed a church decision to a secular ruler. The Council turned out to be the forerunner of the Council of Nicea (325). Present were thirty-three bishops from Gaul (modern-day France), Sicily, Italy, North Africa, and Britain, as well as thirteen presbyters and twenty-three deacons. The Council ruled against the Donatists, excommunicating Donatus (d. 355) their leader. In addition, the Council issued twenty-two decisions, including the directive that Easter be celebrated on the same day everywhere, and that participants in races or gladiatorial fights be excommunicated.
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318 ARIAN CONTROVERSY BEGINS
Trained in Antioch, Arius (250-336) became a presbyter in Alexandria, Egypt. In about 318, he entered into a dispute with Alexander (d. 328), the bishop of Alexandria, over whether Jesus Christ was co-eternal with God. Alexander taught, "God is always, the Son is always" and that the Son is "the unbegotten begotten." Arius' view regarding the Son was, "There was when He was not." At a church council in Alexandria, Arius and his followers were deposed and excommunicated. However, Arius refused to accept this judgment and appealed directly to the citizens of Alexandria and to bishops who had been his fellow students in Antioch. The resulting public demonstrations and letter-writing campaign by the sympathetic bishops challenged the unity of the church. As a result, Emperor Constantine (285-337) intervened and called the Council of Nicea (325).
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
320 PACHOMIUS BEGINS FORMING MONASTIC COMMUNITIES Pachomius (287-346), an Egyptian, became a Christian as a result of the kindnesses shown him by the Christians of Thebes while he served there as a soldier. After his discharge from the army in 313, he was baptized and for a few years lived as a solitary monk. Then, about 320, he settled in the abandoned village of Tabennisi to fulfill his vision of an ascetic community patterned after the early Christians in Jerusalem. As a result, Pachomius is considered the father of communal monasticism. By the time of his death in 346, Pachomius was abbot general over thousands of monks. He established eleven monasteries, nine for men and two for women. He emphasized the need for complete obedience to superiors and the communal ownership of goods.
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323 EUSEBIUS COMPLETES ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY
The son of humble parents, Eusebius (260-340) was born and educated in Caesarea. In 314, he was elected bishop of Caesarea. Considered to be the father of church history, Eusebius' most well known work is his Ecclesiastical History, which he finished in 323. It is an invaluable history of the church, containing records of many events not found elsewhere in existing documents. When the Arian controversy erupted in 318, Eusebius criticized Bishop Alexander (d. 328) of Alexandria for being too quick to condemn Arius (250-336). In response, an Anti-Arian council was held in January 325 in Antioch, where Eusebius was provisionally excommunicated. Later that year he was exonerated at the Council of Nicea. However, Eusebius signed the Nicene Creed only under pressure from Emperor Constantine (285-337) as he was never fully sympathetic to it.
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325 THE NICENE CREED IS WRITTEN
Arius (250-336) was a pastor from Alexandria, Egypt, who taught that God is unique and unknowable and cannot share his substance with anyone. He therefore proclaimed Jesus to be divine but not God. The bishop of Alexandria realized that for Jesus to be the Savior he had to be truly God. Soon the city erupted in riots over this theological issue. In 325, when Emperor Constantine (285-337) realized that the security of his empire and the unity of the church were in danger, he called the Council of Nicea in Asia Minor to resolve the issue. After debating, the bishops denounced Arianism and formulated a creed describing Jesus as "true God from true God, begotten not made, of one substance with the father." All but two of more than three hundred bishops signed the statement, and those two were exiled with Arius.
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326 HELENA MAKES HER PILGRIMAGE TO JERUSALEM
Helena (248-327), Constantine's (285-337) mother, had lowly origins. The daughter of an innkeeper, she probably was the legal concubine of Constantius, who would become the joint emperor of the West from 293 to 306. In 292, Constantius put her away so he could marry the daughter of Emperor Maximian to improve his chances to become a Caesar himself. When Helena's son Constantine was proclaimed emperor by his troops in 306, she was restored to a place of honor. Following Constantine's conversion in 312, Helena also put her faith in Jesus Christ. In about 326, she made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem where her name is connected with many of the churches constructed on sites associated with the life of Christ. She personally supervised the building of a church at the site of Jesus' tomb
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328 FRUMENTIUS IS SHIPWRECKED ON THE ETHIOPIAN COAST Early in the fourth century Frumentius (300-380) and his brother Aedesius, two Christians from Tyre, were shipwrecked on the coast of Ethiopia. They were taken as slaves to the court of the Ethiopian king in Axum. Gaining the king's favor, they were appointed to high offices and given the opportunity to preach the gospel freely. Many people converted to Christianity, and a fledgling church was formed. The brothers strengthened it by bringing additional Christians from Egypt. Aedesius eventually returned to Tyre. In about 341, Frumentius went to Alexandria to see Athanasius (296-373) the patriarch. (Patriarch was a term applied to the bishops of Rome, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria.) When Frumentius requested that he send priests to Ethiopia, Athanasius instead consecrated Frumentius as bishop of Axum. Frumentius returned to Ethiopia, serving as bishop until his death.
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330 CONSTANTINE DEDICATES CONSTANTINOPLE
When Constantine (285-337) became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire, he realized that Rome was too far away from the eastern empire to deal with the problems there. At first he considered making the ancient city of Troy his capital, but decided instead on the site of Byzantium. Its location on the Bosporus Strait had military advantages since it had access to both the Rhine and the Danube, as well as to Persia. On May 11, 330, Constantine dedicated the new "Rome," calling it Constantinople, meaning "city of Constantine" (now Istanbul). Even though Constantinople was created under the Roman Empire, historians view its establishment as the beginning of the Byzantine Empire and a first step leading to the later division between the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodoxy.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
A LIFE TRANSFORMED
November 13, 354
God is in the business of changing lives, and Augustine is a prime example.
Augustine was born on November 13, 354, in Numidia, North Africa (modern-day Algeria). His father was a minor noble who desired above all else that Augustine become cultured. His devout but domineering mother wanted above all else that her son become a Christian.
As a boy, Augustine was the exact opposite of what his mother desired. To her dismay, he became an accomplished thief and liar. As a student he added sexual promiscuity to his catalog of sins, eventually taking a mistress. In spite of his lifestyle, Augustine excelled academically and eventually became a professor.
Ambition brought Augustine to Milan, the imperial capital, in 384, as a teacher of rhetoric. There he met Ambrose, the bishop of Milan, who challenged him to consider Christianity.
Then came a day in 386 that changed Augustine forever. He was at his villa in Milan with his mother when Pontitian, an African Christian and an officer in the imperial household, stopped by for a visit. As they talked, Pontitian casually picked up a book lying on the table and was surprised to see that it was the epistles of Paul. That discovery prompted Pontitian to relate how he had come to put his faith in Christ. He also told how two friends of his had decided to join a monastery, their fiancees also becoming Christians and dedicating themselves to virginity. Hearing the story of the two young women committing themselves to chastity pierced Augustine to the core, and he realized his addiction to sex.
After Pontitian left, Augustine ran out of the house, overcome by his sin. In despair, he flung himself on the ground underneath a fig tree. There he babbled, "How long, how long? Tomorrow and tomorrow? Why not now? Why should there not be an end to my uncleanness now?"
Suddenly Augustine heard the plaintive voice of an unknown little girl singing a song with the simple words, "Take up and read." To Augustine these words came as the voice of God himself. Augustine jumped up and ran to get the book containing Paul's epistles. Opening its pages, his eyes fell on Romans 13:13-14: "We should be decent and true in everything we do, so that everyone can approve of our behavior. Don't participate in wild parties and getting drunk, or in adultery and immoral living, or in fighting and jealousy. But let the Lord Jesus Christ take control of you, and don't think of ways to indulge your evil desires."
Augustine later wrote, "Instantly as I reached the end of this sentence, it was as if the light of peace was poured into my heart, and all the shades of doubt faded away." He immediately went into the house and told his mother that her prayers had been answered.
A changed man, Augustine went on to become the bishop of Hippo in North Africa and the greatest theologian between the apostle Paul and John Calvin.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
341 ULPHILAS, TRANSLATOR OF GOTHIC BIBLE, BECOMES BISHOP
Ulphilas (311-381), a Goth from a Germanic tribe living in the Balkans, spent much of his early life in Constantinople. About 341, he was consecrated as a bishop by Eusebius of Nicomedia (d. 341), the bishop of Constantinople. He then returned to his native land as a missionary. He evangelized among the Goths living in Moesia (present-day Bulgaria). He translated the Bible into Gothic for the first time but omitted 1 and 2 Kings, believing that they would have a negative influence on the Goths who were already fond of war. Eusebius of Nicomedia led him into Arianism, denying that God the Son was eternal. Because of Ulphilas' influence, the Goths were Arians for centuries to come.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
358 BASIL THE GREAT FOUNDS A MONASTERY
Born in Cappadocia (present-day eastern Turkey), Basil (329-379) was the oldest child of Christian parents. He, his brother Gregory of Nyssa (330-395), and Basil's close friend Gregory of Nazianzus (330-389) became known as the Cappadocian Fathers, theologians who had a profound impact on the development of Christian theology. After studying at the University of Athens, Basil returned to Cappadocia and in approximately 358 founded a monastery in Annesia. His Rules for the monastery became famous. It included monastic regulations and answers to practical questions. In 370, Basil became bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, devoting himself to making monasticism a core part of the church, performing works of charity, and above all, defending the orthodoxy of the Council of Nicea against Arianism.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
363 JULIAN THE APOSTATE, THE LAST PAGAN EMPEROR, DIES Roman Emperor Julian the Apostate (331-363) died on June 26, 363. The nephew of Constantine the Great (285-337)—the Roman Empire's first Christian emperor—Julian received his nickname, the Apostate, because he denounced the Christian faith in which he had been raised. Julian succeeded his cousin Constantius as emperor and wasted no time reestablishing homage to the Greek gods. He removed Christians from government service, banned them from teaching in Roman schools or serving in the military, and taxed them heavily. In addition to hindering the lives of Christians, Julian renewed pagan rituals, reopened old temples, and supported pagan sacrifices. His changes were the final imperial effort to return the Roman Empire to pagan worship. All subsequent Roman emperors were at least nominal Christians.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
A DECEITFUL EMPEROR
June 27, 363
Born in 331, Julian was the nephew of Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor of the Roman Empire, who had legalized Christianity. When Julian was six years old, Constantine died and the empire was divided among his three sons, Constantine II, Constans, and Constantius, all Julian's cousins. After wars between the sons, Constantius, also a Christian, emerged victorious as emperor.
Julian had received a Christian education but had secretly rejected it, seeing hypocrisy in the lives of his supposedly Christian teachers. He was baptized and even ordained to serve as a lector, one who read the Scriptures in worship services, but the austere Christianity that was forced on him made him a rebel. He studied in Athens, where he enthusiastically embraced the teachings of Homer, Plato, and Aristotle. While in Athens he became a convert to ancient Greek idolatry. He told his private confidants that he was in daily communication with Jupiter, Minerva, Apollo, and Hercules, who assured him of their personal special protection. However, he publicly concealed his politically incorrect commitment to the Greek gods.
In 356, Emperor Constantius made Julian the governor of Gaul (modern France), where Julian had distinguished himself in battle. Meanwhile, Constantius was in Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and was threatened by the Persians. He ordered some of Julian's troops to come to his aid. Not wanting to march the two thousand miles to Constantinople, Julian's troops mutinied against Constantius' orders and proclaimed Julian as emperor instead. This act of outright rebellion made civil war appear imminent, but Constantius died before it could occur, leaving Julian the undisputed emperor. It was not until just before Constantius died that Julian publicly revealed his allegiance to the Greek gods.
As emperor, Julian immediately set about restoring paganism, earning him the name of Julian the Apostate. In addition to levying heavy taxes on Christians, Julian also removed them from military and government offices and prohibited them from teaching school. He reopened the pagan temples and reinstituted the priesthood and the sacrifices.
In an effort to discredit the Christian holy places in Jerusalem, Julian decided to rebuild the Jewish Temple—not because he had any affection for the Jews, but he wanted to upstage the Christians. However, when the workers were laying the foundation, they struck underground deposits of gas that exploded and burned, ending the project.
After reigning for eight years, Julian went to war against the Persians. The Christians dreaded his return and were relieved to hear that he had died of battle wounds. On June 27, 363—the day after Julian's death—the army elected Jovian, a Christian general, as the new emperor. When news arrived that Julian had died and that his replacement was a Christian, great rejoicing filled the churches.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
366 DAMASUS I BECOMES POPE
Born in Rome of Spanish parents, Damasus (304—384) was made a deacon by Pope Liberius (d. 366). At the pope's death, a fierce controversy broke out over whether his supporters or those of his rival Ursinus would succeed him. Damasus was elected pope, but Emperor Valentinian had to suppress Ursinus' supporters who had set him up as a rival pope. Damasus played a vital role in restraining Arianism, the view that denied Christ's deity by asserting that Jesus was created by God the Father. He also commissioned his secretary, Jerome (345-419), to prepare a reliable Latin translation of the Bible. The result was Jerome's Vulgate, which became the authoritative Bible of the Roman Catholic Church.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
367 ATHANASIUS DEFINES THE NEW TESTAMENT
Athanasius (295-373), bishop of Alexandria, Egypt, devoted his life to defending orthodoxy against Arianism. The church's struggle with heresy increased the urgency to distinguish between truly inspired writings and questionable ones. The canon (Greek for "standard") was generally identified as writings of apostolic origin and those writings used in the churches. By the end of the second century most churches recognized the four Gospels, Acts, and Paul's epistles. The disputed books were Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude, and Revelation. In his widely circulated Easter Letter of 367, Bishop Athanasius named the twenty-seven books that make up the New Testament as we know it, stating that those were the only books to be regarded as Christian Scripture. Although his proclamation was not immediately adopted universally, over time the church gradually came to accept the books on Athanasius' list.
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372 MARTIN OF TOURS BECOMES BISHOP
Born in Pannonia (modern-day Hungary) of pagan parents, Martin (335-397) was enlisted by his father in the Roman army at the age of fifteen. When he was eighteen the plight of a naked beggar moved him to tear his own coat into two parts, giving half to the beggar. Subsequently, he had a vision of Christ wearing half of his cloak. Martin was baptized as a result of his vision. After obtaining a military discharge, he joined Hilary of Poitiers (315-368) in founding the first monastery in Gaul (modern-day France). Elected bishop of Tours in 372, he continued to practice and promote monastic life as well as rural evangelization. Due to his efforts, many churches were established throughout the countryside of Gaul.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
378 GREGORY OF NANZIANZUS BECOMES BISHOP OF CONSTANTINOPLE
The son of the Catholic bishop of Nanzianzus, Cappadocia (now central Turkey), Gregory of Nanzianzus (330-389) was educated in Caesarea (in Cappadocia). While there he met Basil the Great (330-379), and the two men finished their education in Athens, Greece. Gregory followed Basil into the monastic life, studying the Bible in seclusion for most of two decades before being ordained in 362 as co-bishop of Nanzianzus alongside his father. In 374, Gregory returned to monastic life only to be called out again in 378 to be bishop of Constantinople. Second in influence only to Rome, Constantinople was the seat of Catholic orthodoxy in an age characterized by heresy. Among the Cappadocian Fathers, Gregory was christened "The Theologian" for his articulate defense against the prevailing Arian heresy that Jesus was inferior to God because he could not have existed before God "begat" him.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
379 GREGORY OF NYSSA CHAMPIONS ORTHODOXY
Gregory of Nyssa (330-394) spent the first five decades of his life in the shadow of his older brother and teacher, Basil the Great (330-379). Like Basil, Gregory was born in Caesarea in Cappadocia (modern-day Turkey) and received a rigorous classical education. After practicing secular rhetoric and law, Gregory devoted himself to studying theology in a monastery. In 370, Basil, then bishop of Caesarea, made Gregory the bishop of Nyssa. As bishop, Gregory was distinguished for defending the orthodox Nicene faith against Arian heresies, but was removed for administrative failure. When Basil died in 379, Gregory took up his brother's mantle as the Catholic Church's champion of orthodoxy. After Gregory's death around 394, the depth and influence of his theological writings earned him the title "Father of the Cappadocian Fathers."
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
380 THE PALESTINIAN TALMUD IS COMPLETED
The Talmud is a collection of rabbinical laws, judicial decisions, and commentary on the law of Moses. The Talmud consists of two parts: the Mishnah, which is a collection of the oral laws of ancient Judaism, and the Gemara, which is a commentary on the Mishnah. Following the destruction of the Jewish Temple in 70, the Pharisees began putting their oral laws into writing. Rabbi Judah ha-Nasi (Judah the Prince) completed this process by 217. The Gemara, the additional comments added later, completed the Talmud. There are two versions of the Talmud: the Palestinian and the Babylonian. The Palestinian Talmud was completed about 380. It is about a third the length of the Babylonian, which was completed about 500 and has been the more accepted text for subsequent Judaism
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
385 BISHOP AMBROSE DEFIES THE EMPRESS
Ambrose (339-397), bishop of Milan, was a deeply spiritual man and one of the strongest leaders the church had known. Known for his intellect and oratory, he was influential in the conversion of his young admirer Augustine (354-430). The mother of Emperor Valentinian, Empress Justina, was the true power behind the throne in the Western Roman Empire. She was an Arian, believing that God the Son was not eternal, while Bishop Ambrose held to the orthodox teachings of the Council of Nicea. In 385, Empress Justina demanded that Ambrose surrender his cathedral for the use of Arian congregations. When he refused, she ordered soldiers to surround the cathedral. Many expected a massacre. Inside the cathedral the congregation raised their voices in song, and the soldiers inexplicably dispersed. Imperial force had been met with impenetrable faith.
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386 AUGUSTINE CONVERTS TO JESUS CHRIST
In Milan, Italy, in July 386, Aurelius Augustine (354-430) found faith in Jesus Christ and was freed of his enslavement to sexual immorality. That day, as a visitor testified of his conversion to Christianity, Augustine sensed the immense weight of his sin. After the visitor left, he flung himself on the ground in the garden. There he heard a child singing, "Take up and read." Thinking these words to be from God, Augustine took up a book of Paul's epistles. His eyes fell on Romans 13:13-14. The sentence "Let the Lord Jesus Christ take control of you, and don't think of ways to indulge your evil desires" pierced his soul and lit a flame of faith in Christ that never went out. His was one of the church's most celebrated conversions because he proved to be one of history's most prolific Christian thinkers.
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398 CHRYSOSTOM BECOMES BISHOP OF CONSTANTINOPLE
John Chrysostom was born about 347 in Antioch into a Christian family of above average means. He first studied to be an attorney but then became interested in monasticism. After living as a hermit for ten years, he returned to Antioch where he was ordained as a deacon in 381 and a priest in 386. John Chrysostom was the great preacher of his day. His eloquence earned him the name Chrysostom, meaning "golden mouthed." In 398, he reluctantly was made bishop of Constantinople. In that position, his uncompromising zeal to reform the church raised the ire of the empress and many clergy. As a result, he was banished twice and died in 407 in transit to a place of exile.
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