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1302 UNAM SANCTAM PROCLAIMS PAPAL SUPREMACY
Pope Boniface VIII (1234-1303) issued the papal edict Unam Sanctam on November 18, 1302, in response to a dispute with Philip IV (1268-1314), king of France. The edict asserted that there was "neither salvation nor remission of sins" for those outside the church. Emphasizing the role of the pope as head of the church, the decree promised excommunication to anyone who rejected his supreme authority. It also articulated that the "temporal sword" (secular authority) was to submit to the "spiritual sword" (the clergy). The edict concluded with the message that submission to the Roman pope was necessary for salvation. Unam Sanctam marked the height of medieval papal power.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1306 PHILIP IV EXPELS JEWS FROM FRANCE
During the fourteenth century the Jews in France experienced three expulsions. The series of evictions began when King Philip IV (1268-1314) had borrowed all he could from the Jewish money lenders of France. In 1306, he arrested all of them, cancelled his debts to them, and then transferred all the debts owed to the moneylenders from others to himself. In addition, he confiscated all the remaining property of the Jews and expelled them from France. The Jews were allowed back in 1315, following Philip IV's death. Then once again, in 1320, Jewish communities were destroyed. A year later five thousand Jews were accused of poisoning wells and were executed, and the rest of the Jewish population in Paris was forced into exile. As a result, by 1322 there remained only a handful of Jews in France. While the Jews again were recalled in 1359, they all were finally expelled in 1394.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1309 PAPACY BEGINS "BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY" IN AVIGNON
In 1309, at the encouragement of French King Philip IV (1268-1314), Pope Clement V (1264-1314) moved the papal office from Rome to Avignon, France. With this action, Pope Clement, recently elected by a Roman conclave where French emissaries were present, began what became known as the papacy's "Babylonian Captivity," a seventy-year period during which the popes—all Frenchmen—ruled from Avignon and were heavily influenced by the French kings. Clement, for example, appointed French cardinals to twenty-two of twenty-four posts. During this period, the papacy lost the respect of nations hostile to France. The Avignon years were distinguished by luxury in the papal court and an increase of papal taxation.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1311 POPE CLEMENT V SUMMONS THE COUNCIL OF VIENNE Considered the fifteenth ecumenical council, the Council of Vienne was summoned by Pope Clement V (1264-1314) and remained in session from October 16, 1311 through May 6, 1312, deliberating primarily over questions about the Knights Templar, a wealthy crusading order. Philip IV, king of France (1268-1314), hoping to obtain the Templar wealth for himself, had ordered the arrests of Templars and tortured many of them in order to obtain confessions of heresy. Unfortunately, the recent relocation to Avignon placed the pope under Philip's influence, and the king successfully used these confessions to compel the pope and the assembly to abolish the Templar order. The council also made plans for another crusade, which Philip pledged to lead, though it never took place.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1312 KNIGHTS TEMPLAR ARE SUPPRESSED
When the Knights Templar, a militaristic religious order, lost their crusading objectives in the late thirteenth century, they became a secret organization, independent of secular control. The bankrupt king of France, Philip IV (1268-1314), set his eyes on their wealth and to that end pressured Pope Clement V (1264-1314) to dissolve their order. In 1312, Clement issued Vox in excelso, declaring the termination of the Knights Templar throughout Europe. One hundred twenty Templars were executed on charges of heresy and witchcraft, and Philip confiscated their wealth.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1320 SCOTTISH ASSERT THEIR NATIONALISM IN THE DECLARATION OF ARBOATH
After the Scots won their independence from England, Pope John XXII (1244-1334) excommunicated Robert the Bruce (1274-1329), Scotland's new king, for killing a rival in an argument, thereby denying Robert the right to the throne. In response, the Scottish noblemen drafted the Declaration of Arboath, a letter to the pope asserting that Robert was their king because of God's hand, the laws of their country, and the will of the people, and that they would not relent in their claim to independence. The declaration also asserted that the Scottish people were not seeking glory, but liberty for themselves and their posterity. Therefore, they requested that the pope recognize their sovereignty and order the king of England to do the same. It took the pope eight years to decide, but in 1328, he lifted his excommunication and acknowledged Robert's right to be king. The Declaration of Arboath was the most remarkable assertion of nationalism in Europe during the Middle Ages.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1321 DANTE WRITES HIS DIVINE COMEDY
Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), an Italian poet, spent much of his life in exile due to political struggles in his native Florence. He is most well known for his epic poem The Divine Comedy. The poem consists of one hundred sections divided into three parts: The Inferno, The Purgatory, and The Paradise. They tell a story that begins at Easter, with the poet lost in a dark forest (representing Sin). Next, Virgil (Philosophy) volunteers to guide the poet through Hell to the Mount of Purgatory. Finally, Dante's idealized love, Beatrice (Theology or Religion), leads him to Paradise where he meditates on God's indescribable glory. Dante completed the work in 1321, shortly before his death.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1324 MARSIGLIO OF PADUA FINISHES DEFENSOR PACIS
Marsiglio of Padua (1275-1342) was born in Padua, Italy, and studied medicine and philosophy. He was rector of the University of Paris when he wrote Defensor Pacis (The Defender of the Peace) in 1324. The book develops both a philosophy of the state and a theology of the church, including a reproach of papal claims to secular power. He argues that the state, not the church, should bring peace and unity to society. Since Christ himself called for submission to temporal authority, Marsiglio declared the church's hierarchy was merely human and its only power was spiritual. Marsiglio's work was a precursor to the Reformation and was studied by the reformers.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1324 WILLIAM OF OCKHAM IS SUMMONED BEFORE THE POPE William of Ockham (1280-1349), a Franciscan monk who studied and taught at Oxford, was an English philosopher and the most influential theologian of his day. He taught that the Scriptures were the only infallible source of authority and that the pope was not infallible. In Ockham's mind, church councils, not the pope, were the highest ruling authority in the church. He believed that God could be comprehended only by faith and not by reason. He was summoned before the pope in 1324 and eventually excommunicated. He is also remembered for his belief that "What can be done with fewer assumptions is done in vain with more" (known as Ockham's Razor), which had great influence on science by proposing that natural phenomena could be rationally examined.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1337 THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR BEGINS
The Hundred Years' War was the defining event in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Tensions between France and England had been high for nearly a hundred years. Edward III (1312-1377), who had recently become king of England, was the only direct male descendant of King Philip IV (1268-1314) of France, giving Edward a claim to the French throne. However, when King Charles IV (1294-1328) of France died without an heir, he was succeeded by his nephew Philip VI (1293-1350). Edward's claim to the throne against Philip IV started the Hundred Years' War in 1337, when the English attacked Flanders in northern France, gaining control of the English Channel. The war soon degenerated into a fight of attrition that lasted more than one hundred years. It was not until 1453 that the French, inspired by the devout Joan of Arc (1412-1431), drove the last of the British forces out of their country, thus ending the conflict.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1347 THE BLACK DEATH BEGINS
From 1347 to 1351, bubonic plague blazed across Europe. From its origins, apparently in central Asia, the plague moved through India to China and on into Italy. It spread through Switzerland, Germany, and Eastern Europe, eventually moving into France, Spain, and England. By the spring of 1349, the Black Death, as the plague became known, reached London. From there Scotland, Scandinavia, and the Baltic countries were afflicted. Up to 40 percent of those living in urban communities died. The effects of the Black Death included a renewed interest in piety and death, but it also led to the murder of Jews blamed for poisoning wells. In addition the ranks of the Dominicans, formerly respected scholars, were so decimated that they recruited the semiliterate to their order, resulting in much superstitious and heretical theology.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1350 BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LIFE FORMS
In the mid-fourteenth century a movement led by Gerhard Groote (1340-1385) sprang up in Germany and the Netherlands. Focused on the piety of the laity, the groups that surrounded Groote emphasized the inner life of the soul, seeking to imitate Christ by loving one's neighbor. They functioned outside of the bounds of the established church. Following Groote's death the leadership fell to Florentius Radewijns (1350-1400). This society, which began regularly meeting in Groote's hometown of Deventer, the Netherlands, became known as the Brethren of the Common Life. Their movement also labored to establish schools and encourage literacy. A number of influential people emerged from schools established by the Brethren of the Common Life, including Erasmus (1466-1536) and Thomas a Kempis (1380-1471).
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1368 MONGOL DYNASTY DISAPPEARS FROM CHINA
In the fourteenth century, the Mongol Empire was the largest the world had ever seen. Its leaders conquered vast areas that included Korea, Central Asia, Persia, southern Russia, and China. Though not Christian themselves, the Mongol rulers were very tolerant of Roman Catholicism, and under their rule the number of Roman Catholics in China may have grown as high as one hundred thousand. But in 1368, Mongol rule fell to the Chinese Ming Dynasty. With the expulsion of the Mongols from China came a reaction against anything not Chinese. There is no record of any Christian churches in China from this time until the arrival of Jesuit missionaries in the late sixteenth century.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1373 JULIAN OF NORWICH RECEIVES HER REVELATIONS
Julian of Norwich (1342-1413) led a solitary life of prayer and meditation near St. Julian's Church in Norwich, England. Her famous book, The Sixteen Revelations of Divine Love, includes her account of May 8, 1373—a day when she claims to have received fifteen revelations of the suffering of Christ and of the Trinity, receiving one more on the following day. She meditated on the visions for twenty years before recording them in her book.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1378 THE GREAT PAPAL SCHISM BEGINS
Beginning in 1378, the loyalties of the churches of Western Europe were divided between two concurrent popes, with each attempting to excommunicate the other. Urban VI (1318-1389) was in Rome, backed by the German Empire, England, Hungary, Scandinavia, and most of Italy. In Avignon, France, Clement VII (1291-1352) was backed by France, Naples, Savoy, Scotland, Spain, and Sicily.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1378 CATHERINE OF SIENA TRIES TO HEAL GREAT SCHISM
By the age of sixteen, Catherine of Siena (1347-1380) knew she wanted to devote her life to a religious calling. Becoming a member of the Sisters of Penance, a Dominican lay order, she led a life of strict asceticism in her own home. Later in life, Catherine ventured out into public arenas, becoming particularly involved in political diplomacy and church reform. In 1378, after the death of Pope Gregory XI (1329-1378), whom she had earlier convinced to return to Rome from Avignon, France, Catherine actively worked to heal the Great Schism between two rival popes, endorsing the newly elected Urban VI (1318-1389).
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1380 JOHN WYCLIFFE SUPERVISES BIBLE TRANSLATION
Known as the "Morning Star of the Reformation," John Wycliffe (1330-1384) was an Oxford theologian. He challenged papal control, church hierarchy and indulgences, and denied that Christ was literally present in the bread and wine of the Mass. Due to the support of Oxford University, Wycliffe was able to withstand the pope's accusations of heresy against him. Believing that people needed Scripture in their own language in order to have a relationship with God through Christ without church interference, Wycliffe and his Oxford companions completed the first English translation of the New Testament around 1380. They finished the Old Testament in 1382. Not knowing Hebrew or Greek, they translated from the Latin Vulgate. Wycliffe was condemned for heresy after his death. Consequently, his body was exhumed, burned, and his ashes scattered on the Swift River.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1382 LOLLARD REVIVAL IN ENGLAND CONTINUES BIBLE TRANSLATION
The Lollards were English followers of John Wycliffe (1330-1384). The term Lollard was a derisive one, originally meaning "mumbler" or "mutterer." The initial Lollards were Wycliffe's fellow scholars at Oxford, but soon many laymen had been converted to Christ and joined the cause. In 1382, Wycliffe's followers, led by Nicholas of Hereford (d. 1420), finished the translation of the Latin Vulgate Bible into English. It was the first time in one thousand years that the Bible had been translated into a European language. The Lollard priests then took the English Bible into the villages of England. Wycliffe died two years later, but the revival based on his teachings continued. It is estimated that by the early fifteenth century half the English were Lollards.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1391 JEWS ARE FORCED TO CHOOSE MASS CONVERSION OR MASSACRE IN SPAIN
During the fourteenth century, the Black Death plague swept across Europe. The epidemic reached Spain in 1348, along with the accusation that Jews were responsible for the plague by poisoning wells. General hysteria was fanned by the anti-Jewish preaching of a Dominican monk, Vincente Ferrer (1350-1419), and the mood climaxed in a terrible persecution of Jews that began in Seville. On June 6, 1391, a mob attacked the Jewish quarter of Seville killing reportedly more than a thousand people, with thousands more converting to Christianity at swordpoint. The horror spread throughout Spain. Thousands of Jews were killed and thousands more were forced to be baptized. In 1391, while entire communities fled from the massacres, many Jews chose Christianity over death. Many of the forced converts, however, continued to practice Judaism secretly.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1395 LOLLARDS SUMMARIZE COMPLAINTS IN THE TWELVE CONCLUSIONS
The followers of John Wycliffe (1330-1384), called Lollards, were outspoken activists against the abuses of the church in fourteenth- and fifteenth-century England. The group originally began as a group of students and scholars at Oxford, but grew into a larger sect particularly among the middle class. Among their many complaints against the church were its hierarchy, the Eucharist, and its opposition to an English Bible. These complaints were summarized in the Twelve Conclusions, a document written in 1395 to define Lollard beliefs. Six years later, in 1401, Parliament responded with a statute called "On the Burning of a Heretic," which was aimed specifically at the Lollards. In spite of opposition, the Lollards played key roles in English revivals, and their ideas proved influential in England's move toward Protestantism under Henry VIII (1491-1547).
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
Pope Boniface VIII (1234-1303) issued the papal edict Unam Sanctam on November 18, 1302, in response to a dispute with Philip IV (1268-1314), king of France. The edict asserted that there was "neither salvation nor remission of sins" for those outside the church. Emphasizing the role of the pope as head of the church, the decree promised excommunication to anyone who rejected his supreme authority. It also articulated that the "temporal sword" (secular authority) was to submit to the "spiritual sword" (the clergy). The edict concluded with the message that submission to the Roman pope was necessary for salvation. Unam Sanctam marked the height of medieval papal power.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1306 PHILIP IV EXPELS JEWS FROM FRANCE
During the fourteenth century the Jews in France experienced three expulsions. The series of evictions began when King Philip IV (1268-1314) had borrowed all he could from the Jewish money lenders of France. In 1306, he arrested all of them, cancelled his debts to them, and then transferred all the debts owed to the moneylenders from others to himself. In addition, he confiscated all the remaining property of the Jews and expelled them from France. The Jews were allowed back in 1315, following Philip IV's death. Then once again, in 1320, Jewish communities were destroyed. A year later five thousand Jews were accused of poisoning wells and were executed, and the rest of the Jewish population in Paris was forced into exile. As a result, by 1322 there remained only a handful of Jews in France. While the Jews again were recalled in 1359, they all were finally expelled in 1394.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1309 PAPACY BEGINS "BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY" IN AVIGNON
In 1309, at the encouragement of French King Philip IV (1268-1314), Pope Clement V (1264-1314) moved the papal office from Rome to Avignon, France. With this action, Pope Clement, recently elected by a Roman conclave where French emissaries were present, began what became known as the papacy's "Babylonian Captivity," a seventy-year period during which the popes—all Frenchmen—ruled from Avignon and were heavily influenced by the French kings. Clement, for example, appointed French cardinals to twenty-two of twenty-four posts. During this period, the papacy lost the respect of nations hostile to France. The Avignon years were distinguished by luxury in the papal court and an increase of papal taxation.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1311 POPE CLEMENT V SUMMONS THE COUNCIL OF VIENNE Considered the fifteenth ecumenical council, the Council of Vienne was summoned by Pope Clement V (1264-1314) and remained in session from October 16, 1311 through May 6, 1312, deliberating primarily over questions about the Knights Templar, a wealthy crusading order. Philip IV, king of France (1268-1314), hoping to obtain the Templar wealth for himself, had ordered the arrests of Templars and tortured many of them in order to obtain confessions of heresy. Unfortunately, the recent relocation to Avignon placed the pope under Philip's influence, and the king successfully used these confessions to compel the pope and the assembly to abolish the Templar order. The council also made plans for another crusade, which Philip pledged to lead, though it never took place.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1312 KNIGHTS TEMPLAR ARE SUPPRESSED
When the Knights Templar, a militaristic religious order, lost their crusading objectives in the late thirteenth century, they became a secret organization, independent of secular control. The bankrupt king of France, Philip IV (1268-1314), set his eyes on their wealth and to that end pressured Pope Clement V (1264-1314) to dissolve their order. In 1312, Clement issued Vox in excelso, declaring the termination of the Knights Templar throughout Europe. One hundred twenty Templars were executed on charges of heresy and witchcraft, and Philip confiscated their wealth.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1320 SCOTTISH ASSERT THEIR NATIONALISM IN THE DECLARATION OF ARBOATH
After the Scots won their independence from England, Pope John XXII (1244-1334) excommunicated Robert the Bruce (1274-1329), Scotland's new king, for killing a rival in an argument, thereby denying Robert the right to the throne. In response, the Scottish noblemen drafted the Declaration of Arboath, a letter to the pope asserting that Robert was their king because of God's hand, the laws of their country, and the will of the people, and that they would not relent in their claim to independence. The declaration also asserted that the Scottish people were not seeking glory, but liberty for themselves and their posterity. Therefore, they requested that the pope recognize their sovereignty and order the king of England to do the same. It took the pope eight years to decide, but in 1328, he lifted his excommunication and acknowledged Robert's right to be king. The Declaration of Arboath was the most remarkable assertion of nationalism in Europe during the Middle Ages.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1321 DANTE WRITES HIS DIVINE COMEDY
Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), an Italian poet, spent much of his life in exile due to political struggles in his native Florence. He is most well known for his epic poem The Divine Comedy. The poem consists of one hundred sections divided into three parts: The Inferno, The Purgatory, and The Paradise. They tell a story that begins at Easter, with the poet lost in a dark forest (representing Sin). Next, Virgil (Philosophy) volunteers to guide the poet through Hell to the Mount of Purgatory. Finally, Dante's idealized love, Beatrice (Theology or Religion), leads him to Paradise where he meditates on God's indescribable glory. Dante completed the work in 1321, shortly before his death.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1324 MARSIGLIO OF PADUA FINISHES DEFENSOR PACIS
Marsiglio of Padua (1275-1342) was born in Padua, Italy, and studied medicine and philosophy. He was rector of the University of Paris when he wrote Defensor Pacis (The Defender of the Peace) in 1324. The book develops both a philosophy of the state and a theology of the church, including a reproach of papal claims to secular power. He argues that the state, not the church, should bring peace and unity to society. Since Christ himself called for submission to temporal authority, Marsiglio declared the church's hierarchy was merely human and its only power was spiritual. Marsiglio's work was a precursor to the Reformation and was studied by the reformers.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1324 WILLIAM OF OCKHAM IS SUMMONED BEFORE THE POPE William of Ockham (1280-1349), a Franciscan monk who studied and taught at Oxford, was an English philosopher and the most influential theologian of his day. He taught that the Scriptures were the only infallible source of authority and that the pope was not infallible. In Ockham's mind, church councils, not the pope, were the highest ruling authority in the church. He believed that God could be comprehended only by faith and not by reason. He was summoned before the pope in 1324 and eventually excommunicated. He is also remembered for his belief that "What can be done with fewer assumptions is done in vain with more" (known as Ockham's Razor), which had great influence on science by proposing that natural phenomena could be rationally examined.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1337 THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR BEGINS
The Hundred Years' War was the defining event in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Tensions between France and England had been high for nearly a hundred years. Edward III (1312-1377), who had recently become king of England, was the only direct male descendant of King Philip IV (1268-1314) of France, giving Edward a claim to the French throne. However, when King Charles IV (1294-1328) of France died without an heir, he was succeeded by his nephew Philip VI (1293-1350). Edward's claim to the throne against Philip IV started the Hundred Years' War in 1337, when the English attacked Flanders in northern France, gaining control of the English Channel. The war soon degenerated into a fight of attrition that lasted more than one hundred years. It was not until 1453 that the French, inspired by the devout Joan of Arc (1412-1431), drove the last of the British forces out of their country, thus ending the conflict.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1347 THE BLACK DEATH BEGINS
From 1347 to 1351, bubonic plague blazed across Europe. From its origins, apparently in central Asia, the plague moved through India to China and on into Italy. It spread through Switzerland, Germany, and Eastern Europe, eventually moving into France, Spain, and England. By the spring of 1349, the Black Death, as the plague became known, reached London. From there Scotland, Scandinavia, and the Baltic countries were afflicted. Up to 40 percent of those living in urban communities died. The effects of the Black Death included a renewed interest in piety and death, but it also led to the murder of Jews blamed for poisoning wells. In addition the ranks of the Dominicans, formerly respected scholars, were so decimated that they recruited the semiliterate to their order, resulting in much superstitious and heretical theology.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1350 BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LIFE FORMS
In the mid-fourteenth century a movement led by Gerhard Groote (1340-1385) sprang up in Germany and the Netherlands. Focused on the piety of the laity, the groups that surrounded Groote emphasized the inner life of the soul, seeking to imitate Christ by loving one's neighbor. They functioned outside of the bounds of the established church. Following Groote's death the leadership fell to Florentius Radewijns (1350-1400). This society, which began regularly meeting in Groote's hometown of Deventer, the Netherlands, became known as the Brethren of the Common Life. Their movement also labored to establish schools and encourage literacy. A number of influential people emerged from schools established by the Brethren of the Common Life, including Erasmus (1466-1536) and Thomas a Kempis (1380-1471).
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1368 MONGOL DYNASTY DISAPPEARS FROM CHINA
In the fourteenth century, the Mongol Empire was the largest the world had ever seen. Its leaders conquered vast areas that included Korea, Central Asia, Persia, southern Russia, and China. Though not Christian themselves, the Mongol rulers were very tolerant of Roman Catholicism, and under their rule the number of Roman Catholics in China may have grown as high as one hundred thousand. But in 1368, Mongol rule fell to the Chinese Ming Dynasty. With the expulsion of the Mongols from China came a reaction against anything not Chinese. There is no record of any Christian churches in China from this time until the arrival of Jesuit missionaries in the late sixteenth century.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1373 JULIAN OF NORWICH RECEIVES HER REVELATIONS
Julian of Norwich (1342-1413) led a solitary life of prayer and meditation near St. Julian's Church in Norwich, England. Her famous book, The Sixteen Revelations of Divine Love, includes her account of May 8, 1373—a day when she claims to have received fifteen revelations of the suffering of Christ and of the Trinity, receiving one more on the following day. She meditated on the visions for twenty years before recording them in her book.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1378 THE GREAT PAPAL SCHISM BEGINS
Beginning in 1378, the loyalties of the churches of Western Europe were divided between two concurrent popes, with each attempting to excommunicate the other. Urban VI (1318-1389) was in Rome, backed by the German Empire, England, Hungary, Scandinavia, and most of Italy. In Avignon, France, Clement VII (1291-1352) was backed by France, Naples, Savoy, Scotland, Spain, and Sicily.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1378 CATHERINE OF SIENA TRIES TO HEAL GREAT SCHISM
By the age of sixteen, Catherine of Siena (1347-1380) knew she wanted to devote her life to a religious calling. Becoming a member of the Sisters of Penance, a Dominican lay order, she led a life of strict asceticism in her own home. Later in life, Catherine ventured out into public arenas, becoming particularly involved in political diplomacy and church reform. In 1378, after the death of Pope Gregory XI (1329-1378), whom she had earlier convinced to return to Rome from Avignon, France, Catherine actively worked to heal the Great Schism between two rival popes, endorsing the newly elected Urban VI (1318-1389).
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1380 JOHN WYCLIFFE SUPERVISES BIBLE TRANSLATION
Known as the "Morning Star of the Reformation," John Wycliffe (1330-1384) was an Oxford theologian. He challenged papal control, church hierarchy and indulgences, and denied that Christ was literally present in the bread and wine of the Mass. Due to the support of Oxford University, Wycliffe was able to withstand the pope's accusations of heresy against him. Believing that people needed Scripture in their own language in order to have a relationship with God through Christ without church interference, Wycliffe and his Oxford companions completed the first English translation of the New Testament around 1380. They finished the Old Testament in 1382. Not knowing Hebrew or Greek, they translated from the Latin Vulgate. Wycliffe was condemned for heresy after his death. Consequently, his body was exhumed, burned, and his ashes scattered on the Swift River.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1382 LOLLARD REVIVAL IN ENGLAND CONTINUES BIBLE TRANSLATION
The Lollards were English followers of John Wycliffe (1330-1384). The term Lollard was a derisive one, originally meaning "mumbler" or "mutterer." The initial Lollards were Wycliffe's fellow scholars at Oxford, but soon many laymen had been converted to Christ and joined the cause. In 1382, Wycliffe's followers, led by Nicholas of Hereford (d. 1420), finished the translation of the Latin Vulgate Bible into English. It was the first time in one thousand years that the Bible had been translated into a European language. The Lollard priests then took the English Bible into the villages of England. Wycliffe died two years later, but the revival based on his teachings continued. It is estimated that by the early fifteenth century half the English were Lollards.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1391 JEWS ARE FORCED TO CHOOSE MASS CONVERSION OR MASSACRE IN SPAIN
During the fourteenth century, the Black Death plague swept across Europe. The epidemic reached Spain in 1348, along with the accusation that Jews were responsible for the plague by poisoning wells. General hysteria was fanned by the anti-Jewish preaching of a Dominican monk, Vincente Ferrer (1350-1419), and the mood climaxed in a terrible persecution of Jews that began in Seville. On June 6, 1391, a mob attacked the Jewish quarter of Seville killing reportedly more than a thousand people, with thousands more converting to Christianity at swordpoint. The horror spread throughout Spain. Thousands of Jews were killed and thousands more were forced to be baptized. In 1391, while entire communities fled from the massacres, many Jews chose Christianity over death. Many of the forced converts, however, continued to practice Judaism secretly.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1395 LOLLARDS SUMMARIZE COMPLAINTS IN THE TWELVE CONCLUSIONS
The followers of John Wycliffe (1330-1384), called Lollards, were outspoken activists against the abuses of the church in fourteenth- and fifteenth-century England. The group originally began as a group of students and scholars at Oxford, but grew into a larger sect particularly among the middle class. Among their many complaints against the church were its hierarchy, the Eucharist, and its opposition to an English Bible. These complaints were summarized in the Twelve Conclusions, a document written in 1395 to define Lollard beliefs. Six years later, in 1401, Parliament responded with a statute called "On the Burning of a Heretic," which was aimed specifically at the Lollards. In spite of opposition, the Lollards played key roles in English revivals, and their ideas proved influential in England's move toward Protestantism under Henry VIII (1491-1547).
—Complete Book of When and Where, The