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711 MUSLIMS INVADE SPAIN
By 710, the Muslim armies had conquered most of North Africa. In that year a Muslim Berber chief named Tarif ibn Malluk led a raiding party across the Straits of Gibraltar into Spain, then known as Iberia. Cape Tarifa, the southernmost tip of Gibraltar, still carries his name. Encouraged by the success of this mission, Tarik ibn Aiyad (d. 720), another Berber, prepared a larger expedition, which in the spring of 711 landed an army of seven thousand Muslim horsemen on Gibraltar. From there the army marched north, defeating the Visigoths who controlled Spain and capturing Cordoba and Toledo. In 712, Musa ibn Nusayr (640-716), the governor of northwest Africa, arrived in Spain with a Muslim army of ten thousand and captured Seville and Merida. By 718, the Muslims controlled most of the Iberian Peninsula and had crossed the Pyrenees into southern France. The conquest of Spain was to be the most enduring Muslim achievement in Europe.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
716 BONIFACE'S MISSIONARY CAREER BEGINS
Born in Devonshire, England, Boniface (675-754) was ordained at the age of thirty. Feeling called to evangelize Europe, he made his first missionary trip to the continent in 716. After laboring in Frisia, Holland, and Germany, he went to Rome in 723 and was consecrated as missionary bishop to Germany by Pope Gregory II (669-731). Boniface's missionary methods were vigorous and assertive. His most famous act was chopping down the sacred oak of the German thunder god. Throughout Germany, he preached, set up monasteries, organized bishoprics, trained clergy, and tore down pagan shrines. At the end of his career, he longed to return to still-pagan Frisia, where he had begun. He was martyred in Frisia in 754, ending his career as the most effective missionary of the Dark Ages (the fifth through eighth centuries).
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
726 EMPEROR LEO III DECLARES AN EDICT AGAINST WORSHIP OF IMAGES
Although pictures had been banned by church councils, they had become very popular from 400 on. It was suggested that the pictures of martyrs would help the illiterate to follow their positive examples. Then in 717, Leo III (680-741) took the empire's throne. Apparently believing that the veneration of images was an obstacle in evangelizing Jews and Muslims, in 726 Emperor Leo III issued an edict declaring all paintings, mosaics, and statues in churches to be idols and ordering them to be destroyed. In Rome, Pope Gregory II (669-731) rejected the decree, and his successor, Gregory III (731-741), called a council in 731 that affirmed this position. John of Damascus (675-749) wrote against iconoclasm, opposition to the use of images in worship, and advocacy of their destruction. This opposition, however, did not deter Leo or his successor, Constantine V (718-775). Their campaign against images went on unabated.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
730 JOHN OF DAMASCUS WRITES FOUNT OF WISDOM
John (675-749) was born about 675 into a wealthy Christian home in Damascus. His father was the representative of Christians in the court of the caliph. John succeeded his father in the position; however, in about 716 he joined a monastery near Jerusalem. From 726 to 730 he wrote three treatises defending the use of images in worship, asserting that those opposed to them had a pessimistic view toward matter. John's most famous treatise was the Fount of Wisdom. In its first section he examined the philosophy of Aristotle, applying it to Christian theology in a manner that was followed by many theologians of the following centuries. In the second part, he answered heresies that had arisen in the church. John's lasting contribution was in systematizing the theology of Eastern Christianity. His approach is still authoritative in Eastern Orthodoxy.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
731 BEDE COMPLETES ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE
Born in Northumbria (now Durham, England), Bede (673-735) entered a monastery at the age of seven. The monastery soon moved to Jarrow where he lived for the rest of his life. In that isolated location he became one of the most educated men in Europe. After his ordination, he taught and wrote in the monastery. In 731, he completed his best-known work, Ecclesiastical History of the English People. It is a primary and, in many cases, sole source for much of early English history. Within a century of his death, he was ascribed the title, "The Venerable Bede." He was the father of English history.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
732 THE BATTLE OF TOURS
Many consider the rise of Islam to be one of the most unique movements in history. In 622, the followers of Muhammad (570-632) were a persecuted band of religionists huddled in Mecca. Exactly one hundred years later they controlled much of the known world, from Spain on the west, to all of North Africa, Palestine, Syria, Persia, and even parts of India, until they were threatening Constantinople and France. Charles Martel (689-741) (Martel meaning "the hammer") was the military leader of the Franks, a German tribe that had invaded Gaul (modern-day France) and converted to Christianity. In 732, the Muslim army pushed northward into the territory of the Franks, and Charles Martel met them between Tours and Poitiers in Gaul. In a series of fierce battles, Martel and the Franks successfully pushed the Muslims back to Spain. Martel preserved Western civilization; if not for his victory at Tours, Western Europe today would be Muslim and speaking Arabic.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
740 KHAZARS CONVERT TO JUDAISM
The persecution of the Byzantine Empire caused many Jews to flee to the little kingdom of Khazaria, located north of the Caspian and Black Seas with its capital, Atila, on the Volga River. In about 740, the king of Khazaria and the whole ruling class converted to Judaism. This event was a great encouragement to Jews throughout the world, for it meant that there was at least one place in the world where Jews were in authority. News of the mass conversion reached the Jews of Spain in the tenth century, and Hasdai Ibn Shaprut (915-970), the leader of the Spanish Jewish community, began corresponding with the Khazar king. In 965, Khazaria was severely oppressed by nearby Kiev. Greatly weakened and reduced in size, the kingdom disappeared from view after the twelfth century.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
750 THE DONATION OF CONSTANTINE IS WRITTEN
In approximately 750, an unknown author fabricated a document entitled the Donation of Constantine. It claims to be written by Constantine (285-337) as a record of his conversion and faith and of the privileges that he conferred on Pope Sylvester I (d. 335) and his successors. These privileges included authority over all other churches, particularly those of Alexandria, Antioch, Constantinople, and Jerusalem. The pope also was given dominion over Rome, Italy, and all western regions. The pope was made the supreme judge of all clergy and was even offered the imperial crown, but he refused. These supposed grants were undoubtedly to support the universal claims of the popes and were frequently cited for that purpose. The document was not identified as a forgery until the fifteenth century.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
753 THE SYNOD OF HIERIA ENDORSES ICONOCLASM
The controversy over the veneration of images or icons had begun with the edict of Emperor Leo III (680-741) in 726, outlawing their worship. In 741, Leo was succeeded by his son Constantine V (718-775), who continued the policy of his father. To gain ecclesiastical backing for his position, Constantine called the Synod of Hieria to deal with the issue. A total of 338 bishops met near Chalcedon, although the patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem did not attend, nor did the pope. The synod ruled that by representing only the humanity of Christ, icon worshipers were either dividing his unity or confounding his two natures. The synod declared that all images of Mary or saints were idols and therefore to be destroyed. The decision of Hieria fueled the controversy, and many monks were martyred for the sake of their venerated icons.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
756 PEPIN III DONATES LAND TO THE PAPACY
In 756, Pepin III (714-768), king of the Franks, granted the Lombard lands of central Italy to Pope Stephen II (d. 757). Known as the "Donation of Pepin," this act procured for the papacy political authority over much of central Italy. This newly explicit papal political power and the cooperation between pope and king were not without precedent, however, nor unexpected. Five years earlier, Pope Zacharias (d. 752) had supported Pepin's rise to kingship, and in 754 Stephen personally crowned Pepin as king. Pepin's donation, then, was the product of a growing collaboration between papacy and empire. It also reflected the increasing role of northern Europe in the religious and political medieval world. The Donation of Pepin set the stage for Pope Leo III (d. 816) to crown Pepin's son, Charlemagne (742-814), as Holy Roman Emperor in 800.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
765 ANAN BEGINS KARAITE MOVEMENT
Around 765, Anan ben David established the Karaites, which means "the people of Scripture." The movement, located in Islamic-ruled Iraq, sought to reform Judaism by emphasizing study of the Jewish Bible. By the late eighth century the traditional writings of Jewish rabbis had come to be regarded as a higher authority than the Bible, and Anan and his followers believed this progression twisted the Jewish religion. Besides reestablishing Scripture as the key source for Jewish law and practice, Anan taught that all Jews should be allowed to interpret the Bible for themselves. Resulting from their own efforts to interpret Scripture, the Karaites were among the first to study Hebrew grammar, and they wrote a number of biblical commentaries.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
768 CHARLEMAGNE CONQUERS WESTERN EUROPE
Charlemagne (742-814) became ruler of France in 768. He proceeded to conquer Germany and Italy, and then continued to fight throughout central Europe and northern Spain, setting up frontier areas that later were influential in the spread of Christianity throughout Europe. Because Charlemagne made profound religious, political, economic, and intellectual contributions that greatly influenced Western culture, he is often considered to be the founder of Europe.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
768-814 CHARLEMAGNE'S REFORMS SPARK RENAISSANCE
With hopes of reestablishing the glory of the old Roman Empire, Emperor Charlemagne (742-814) pressed for many changes to the clergy. His goals were to produce a literate clergy and to preserve the classic ancient works, to create an enduring legacy of Christian scholarship and learning. As a result, illiteracy was attacked throughout the empire, new monasteries and schools were established in many regions, and there was a renewed focus on liberal arts as part of education. Charlemagne's reforms thus marked the beginning of a revival in learning and education for the whole population of the Holy Roman Empire in general, and for the church in particular.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
781 ALCUIN OF YORK BECOMES AN ADVISOR TO CHARLEMAGNE Alcuin of York (d. 804) was head of a cathedral school in York when Charlemagne (742-814) persuaded him to leave England to become a part of his court in France. Charlemagne was attempting to raise the level of education among the clergy in his kingdom and enlisted Alcuin as his royal advisor in this matter. Alcuin's chief duty was to teach Latin language, culture, and theology—subjects that had been neglected over the years. One of the results of Alcuin's work was the development of a style of handwriting called Caroline miniscule, which used both capital and lowercase letters and was easier to read than earlier styles. His writings on theological topics continue to be studied today. He is regarded as the most significant figure in the renaissance of classical and religious learning that began under Charlemagne.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
787 SECOND COUNCIL OF NICEA SETTLES ICON CONTROVERSY Although early Jewish and Christian practice forbad the worship of icons, by the early eighth century, the veneration of images had gained widespread acceptance in the church. Therefore, in 730, when Emperor Leo III (680-741) proclaimed this practice to be unlawful, there was a backlash against his decree. After several years of intense controversy that involved violent persecution on both sides, a council convened to decide the question. For more than a month in 787, the Second Council of Nicea (a city just east of modern-day Istanbul, Turkey) met to debate the issue. After eight sessions, attended by more than three hundred delegates, the council decided that icons could receive veneration but not adoration, which was reserved for God alone. Although this decision was not immediately accepted (Emperor Charlemagne [742-814] openly defied it), it eventually became the standard practice of the whole church.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
By 710, the Muslim armies had conquered most of North Africa. In that year a Muslim Berber chief named Tarif ibn Malluk led a raiding party across the Straits of Gibraltar into Spain, then known as Iberia. Cape Tarifa, the southernmost tip of Gibraltar, still carries his name. Encouraged by the success of this mission, Tarik ibn Aiyad (d. 720), another Berber, prepared a larger expedition, which in the spring of 711 landed an army of seven thousand Muslim horsemen on Gibraltar. From there the army marched north, defeating the Visigoths who controlled Spain and capturing Cordoba and Toledo. In 712, Musa ibn Nusayr (640-716), the governor of northwest Africa, arrived in Spain with a Muslim army of ten thousand and captured Seville and Merida. By 718, the Muslims controlled most of the Iberian Peninsula and had crossed the Pyrenees into southern France. The conquest of Spain was to be the most enduring Muslim achievement in Europe.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
716 BONIFACE'S MISSIONARY CAREER BEGINS
Born in Devonshire, England, Boniface (675-754) was ordained at the age of thirty. Feeling called to evangelize Europe, he made his first missionary trip to the continent in 716. After laboring in Frisia, Holland, and Germany, he went to Rome in 723 and was consecrated as missionary bishop to Germany by Pope Gregory II (669-731). Boniface's missionary methods were vigorous and assertive. His most famous act was chopping down the sacred oak of the German thunder god. Throughout Germany, he preached, set up monasteries, organized bishoprics, trained clergy, and tore down pagan shrines. At the end of his career, he longed to return to still-pagan Frisia, where he had begun. He was martyred in Frisia in 754, ending his career as the most effective missionary of the Dark Ages (the fifth through eighth centuries).
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
726 EMPEROR LEO III DECLARES AN EDICT AGAINST WORSHIP OF IMAGES
Although pictures had been banned by church councils, they had become very popular from 400 on. It was suggested that the pictures of martyrs would help the illiterate to follow their positive examples. Then in 717, Leo III (680-741) took the empire's throne. Apparently believing that the veneration of images was an obstacle in evangelizing Jews and Muslims, in 726 Emperor Leo III issued an edict declaring all paintings, mosaics, and statues in churches to be idols and ordering them to be destroyed. In Rome, Pope Gregory II (669-731) rejected the decree, and his successor, Gregory III (731-741), called a council in 731 that affirmed this position. John of Damascus (675-749) wrote against iconoclasm, opposition to the use of images in worship, and advocacy of their destruction. This opposition, however, did not deter Leo or his successor, Constantine V (718-775). Their campaign against images went on unabated.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
730 JOHN OF DAMASCUS WRITES FOUNT OF WISDOM
John (675-749) was born about 675 into a wealthy Christian home in Damascus. His father was the representative of Christians in the court of the caliph. John succeeded his father in the position; however, in about 716 he joined a monastery near Jerusalem. From 726 to 730 he wrote three treatises defending the use of images in worship, asserting that those opposed to them had a pessimistic view toward matter. John's most famous treatise was the Fount of Wisdom. In its first section he examined the philosophy of Aristotle, applying it to Christian theology in a manner that was followed by many theologians of the following centuries. In the second part, he answered heresies that had arisen in the church. John's lasting contribution was in systematizing the theology of Eastern Christianity. His approach is still authoritative in Eastern Orthodoxy.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
731 BEDE COMPLETES ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE
Born in Northumbria (now Durham, England), Bede (673-735) entered a monastery at the age of seven. The monastery soon moved to Jarrow where he lived for the rest of his life. In that isolated location he became one of the most educated men in Europe. After his ordination, he taught and wrote in the monastery. In 731, he completed his best-known work, Ecclesiastical History of the English People. It is a primary and, in many cases, sole source for much of early English history. Within a century of his death, he was ascribed the title, "The Venerable Bede." He was the father of English history.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
732 THE BATTLE OF TOURS
Many consider the rise of Islam to be one of the most unique movements in history. In 622, the followers of Muhammad (570-632) were a persecuted band of religionists huddled in Mecca. Exactly one hundred years later they controlled much of the known world, from Spain on the west, to all of North Africa, Palestine, Syria, Persia, and even parts of India, until they were threatening Constantinople and France. Charles Martel (689-741) (Martel meaning "the hammer") was the military leader of the Franks, a German tribe that had invaded Gaul (modern-day France) and converted to Christianity. In 732, the Muslim army pushed northward into the territory of the Franks, and Charles Martel met them between Tours and Poitiers in Gaul. In a series of fierce battles, Martel and the Franks successfully pushed the Muslims back to Spain. Martel preserved Western civilization; if not for his victory at Tours, Western Europe today would be Muslim and speaking Arabic.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
740 KHAZARS CONVERT TO JUDAISM
The persecution of the Byzantine Empire caused many Jews to flee to the little kingdom of Khazaria, located north of the Caspian and Black Seas with its capital, Atila, on the Volga River. In about 740, the king of Khazaria and the whole ruling class converted to Judaism. This event was a great encouragement to Jews throughout the world, for it meant that there was at least one place in the world where Jews were in authority. News of the mass conversion reached the Jews of Spain in the tenth century, and Hasdai Ibn Shaprut (915-970), the leader of the Spanish Jewish community, began corresponding with the Khazar king. In 965, Khazaria was severely oppressed by nearby Kiev. Greatly weakened and reduced in size, the kingdom disappeared from view after the twelfth century.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
750 THE DONATION OF CONSTANTINE IS WRITTEN
In approximately 750, an unknown author fabricated a document entitled the Donation of Constantine. It claims to be written by Constantine (285-337) as a record of his conversion and faith and of the privileges that he conferred on Pope Sylvester I (d. 335) and his successors. These privileges included authority over all other churches, particularly those of Alexandria, Antioch, Constantinople, and Jerusalem. The pope also was given dominion over Rome, Italy, and all western regions. The pope was made the supreme judge of all clergy and was even offered the imperial crown, but he refused. These supposed grants were undoubtedly to support the universal claims of the popes and were frequently cited for that purpose. The document was not identified as a forgery until the fifteenth century.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
753 THE SYNOD OF HIERIA ENDORSES ICONOCLASM
The controversy over the veneration of images or icons had begun with the edict of Emperor Leo III (680-741) in 726, outlawing their worship. In 741, Leo was succeeded by his son Constantine V (718-775), who continued the policy of his father. To gain ecclesiastical backing for his position, Constantine called the Synod of Hieria to deal with the issue. A total of 338 bishops met near Chalcedon, although the patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem did not attend, nor did the pope. The synod ruled that by representing only the humanity of Christ, icon worshipers were either dividing his unity or confounding his two natures. The synod declared that all images of Mary or saints were idols and therefore to be destroyed. The decision of Hieria fueled the controversy, and many monks were martyred for the sake of their venerated icons.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
756 PEPIN III DONATES LAND TO THE PAPACY
In 756, Pepin III (714-768), king of the Franks, granted the Lombard lands of central Italy to Pope Stephen II (d. 757). Known as the "Donation of Pepin," this act procured for the papacy political authority over much of central Italy. This newly explicit papal political power and the cooperation between pope and king were not without precedent, however, nor unexpected. Five years earlier, Pope Zacharias (d. 752) had supported Pepin's rise to kingship, and in 754 Stephen personally crowned Pepin as king. Pepin's donation, then, was the product of a growing collaboration between papacy and empire. It also reflected the increasing role of northern Europe in the religious and political medieval world. The Donation of Pepin set the stage for Pope Leo III (d. 816) to crown Pepin's son, Charlemagne (742-814), as Holy Roman Emperor in 800.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
765 ANAN BEGINS KARAITE MOVEMENT
Around 765, Anan ben David established the Karaites, which means "the people of Scripture." The movement, located in Islamic-ruled Iraq, sought to reform Judaism by emphasizing study of the Jewish Bible. By the late eighth century the traditional writings of Jewish rabbis had come to be regarded as a higher authority than the Bible, and Anan and his followers believed this progression twisted the Jewish religion. Besides reestablishing Scripture as the key source for Jewish law and practice, Anan taught that all Jews should be allowed to interpret the Bible for themselves. Resulting from their own efforts to interpret Scripture, the Karaites were among the first to study Hebrew grammar, and they wrote a number of biblical commentaries.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
768 CHARLEMAGNE CONQUERS WESTERN EUROPE
Charlemagne (742-814) became ruler of France in 768. He proceeded to conquer Germany and Italy, and then continued to fight throughout central Europe and northern Spain, setting up frontier areas that later were influential in the spread of Christianity throughout Europe. Because Charlemagne made profound religious, political, economic, and intellectual contributions that greatly influenced Western culture, he is often considered to be the founder of Europe.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
768-814 CHARLEMAGNE'S REFORMS SPARK RENAISSANCE
With hopes of reestablishing the glory of the old Roman Empire, Emperor Charlemagne (742-814) pressed for many changes to the clergy. His goals were to produce a literate clergy and to preserve the classic ancient works, to create an enduring legacy of Christian scholarship and learning. As a result, illiteracy was attacked throughout the empire, new monasteries and schools were established in many regions, and there was a renewed focus on liberal arts as part of education. Charlemagne's reforms thus marked the beginning of a revival in learning and education for the whole population of the Holy Roman Empire in general, and for the church in particular.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
781 ALCUIN OF YORK BECOMES AN ADVISOR TO CHARLEMAGNE Alcuin of York (d. 804) was head of a cathedral school in York when Charlemagne (742-814) persuaded him to leave England to become a part of his court in France. Charlemagne was attempting to raise the level of education among the clergy in his kingdom and enlisted Alcuin as his royal advisor in this matter. Alcuin's chief duty was to teach Latin language, culture, and theology—subjects that had been neglected over the years. One of the results of Alcuin's work was the development of a style of handwriting called Caroline miniscule, which used both capital and lowercase letters and was easier to read than earlier styles. His writings on theological topics continue to be studied today. He is regarded as the most significant figure in the renaissance of classical and religious learning that began under Charlemagne.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
787 SECOND COUNCIL OF NICEA SETTLES ICON CONTROVERSY Although early Jewish and Christian practice forbad the worship of icons, by the early eighth century, the veneration of images had gained widespread acceptance in the church. Therefore, in 730, when Emperor Leo III (680-741) proclaimed this practice to be unlawful, there was a backlash against his decree. After several years of intense controversy that involved violent persecution on both sides, a council convened to decide the question. For more than a month in 787, the Second Council of Nicea (a city just east of modern-day Istanbul, Turkey) met to debate the issue. After eight sessions, attended by more than three hundred delegates, the council decided that icons could receive veneration but not adoration, which was reserved for God alone. Although this decision was not immediately accepted (Emperor Charlemagne [742-814] openly defied it), it eventually became the standard practice of the whole church.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The