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1115 BERNARD FOUNDS A MONASTERY AT CLAIRVAUX
Bernard (1090-1153) grew up in a noble French family. Shortly after joining a Cistercian monastery, he moved to Clairvaux, France, in 1115 and established a new monastery there. Though devoted to the ascetic life at Clairvaux, Bernard became immersed in the political activities of his day. Bernard believed, as outlined in his Twelve Steps to Humility, that all Christians should focus on the soul, emptying it of worldly desires and achieving final union with God. He supported the Second Crusade but was also respected for his goodness, self-discipline, and personal charm. Considered by some to be the greatest medieval master of language, Bernard is honored by both Protestants and Catholics today. His beloved hymns include "Jesus, the Very Thought of Thee" and "O Sacred Head Now Wounded."
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1119 POPE CALLISTUS II WRITES BULL DEFENDING JEWS
In 1119, Pope Callistus II (1050-1124) issued a historic papal bull, Sicut Judaeis, defending the Jewish population throughout Europe. Callistus' defense came in response to the violence rained upon the Jews in the Rhineland during the First Crusade (1096). During his rule, Pope Gregory I (540-604) had made a similar attempt to protect the Jews. The terrible attack on Jews at the end of the eleventh century caused Callistus to reinforce the church's condemnation of violently attempting to convert Jews to Christianity. Throughout the next four centuries this papal decree was reissued more than twenty times. Sicut Judaeis granted the Jews "the shield of [the church's] protection" and declared "that no Christian shall use violence to force [Jews] into baptism."
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1122 CONCORDAT OF WORMS ENDS INVESTITURE CONTROVERSY
Pope Nicholas II (1010-1061) in 1059 and Pope Gregory VII (1023-1085) in 1075 prohibited lay investiture, the practice of laymen appointing clerics to office. Gregory's ruling was repeated in 1076, 1078, and 1080, and was upheld by subsequent popes. The Concordat of Worms confirmed the decision in 1122. While the church won the battle of investiture, the emperor and other lay rulers still maintained a varying degree of control over church appointments.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1122 PETER ABELARD WRITES SIC AND NON
French philosopher, theologian, and teacher Peter Abelard (1079-1142) was an inventive thinker whose lectures attracted large crowds. His pupils included Peter Lombard (1095-1169), an Italian theologian, and many other great thinkers of the twelfth century. While teaching in Paris, Abelard roomed at the home of Fulbert, the canon of Notre Dame, and agreed to tutor Fulbert's niece, Heloise (1101-1164). Abelard and Heloise soon fell in love, and in 1116 Heloise gave birth to their son, Astrolabe. Abelard married Heloise secretly, but she joined a convent to protect Abelard's career. Fulbert was furious and had Abelard castrated. Abelard rose above the scandal and continued to be a popular lecturer. His most famous book was Sic and Non, in which he compared the contradictory statements between the Bible and the church fathers.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1123 LATERAN COUNCIL RATIFIES THE CONCORDAT OF WORMS Held in the Church of St. John Lateran in Rome, the first of five Lateran Councils was summoned by Pope Callistus II (1050-1124) in 1123. The primary task of the council was to authenticate the Concordat of Worms, written in 1122, thereby signaling the end of the investiture controversy by condemning lay investiture, the practice that allowed rulers to make ecclesiastical appointments. In the spirit of Pope Gregory VII (Hildebrand) (1023-1085), many of the laws addressed reforms that affected ordinations and the appointing of church offices as well as making an attempt to curb the sale of indulgences.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1139 SECOND LATERAN COUNCIL RULES ON CHURCH REFORMS Summoned by Pope Innocent II (d. 1143) in 1139, the Second Lateran Council held at the Church of St. John Lateran in Rome was concerned with church reform. The council prohibited the clergy from receiving payment for extreme unction and burial, from studying secular law or medicine, from marrying, and from using crossbows.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1141 BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX DENOUNCES ABELARD AT THE COUNCIL OF SENS
The Council of Sens, held in 1141, was one of many councils held in Sens, France, to examine charges of heresy brought against Peter Abelard (1079-1142) by Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153). Abelard, a popular lecturer, was accused of having a deficient view of the Trinity. He, in return, accused Bernard of instituting unconventional practices at Clairvaux. Unable to persuade Abelard to retract, Bernard came to Sens determined to condemn Abelard for heresy. Abelard refused to defend himself and appealed his case to Pope Innocent II (d. 1143). The pope, however, declared Abelard to be a heretic and sentenced him to perpetual silence and banishment.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1141 HILDEGARD OF BINGEN BEGINS WRITING
German mystic, abbess, and author, Hildegard (1098-1179) reported her first vision from God when she was only three years old. Her parents sent her to a Benedictine convent for her education where, in 1141, Hildegard shared her revelations with her friends and superiors. Amazed by her gift, the women convinced Hildegard to record her visions. The resulting volume, Scivias, became a classic of medieval mystic literature. In her time Hildegard was regarded as a prophetess by the pope and other church authorities. One of her supporters, Bernard of Clairvaux, (1090-1153), had a lifelong correspondence with her, discussing many things including the need for reform within the church. Hildegard's writings cover topics ranging from science and medicine to hymnology and the lives of the saints.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1144 FIRST ACCUSATION OF BLOOD LIBEL OCCURS IN ENGLAND
Throughout the Middle Ages, the accusation of blood libel—the rumor that Jews murder Gentiles to use their blood for religious rituals—was used as a pretense for the persecution and murder of Jews. The first instance of this practice was in 1144 near Norwich, England. Several Jewish leaders were arrested and executed on the charge that they had kidnapped a local child. They were accused of crucifying the boy, stabbing his head to imitate Jesus' crown of thorns, and then using his blood as part of their Passover celebration. In 1247, the Roman Catholic Church officially declared the blood libel charges to be false; however, many continued to falsely accuse Jews of this gruesome practice. The Nazis revived blood libel rumors during their intense persecution of the Jews in the 1930s and 1940s.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1147 CRUSADERS MASSACRE JEWS IN RHINELAND FOR THE SECOND TIME
Just like the First Crusade of 1096, attacks on the Jews of the Rhineland characterized the early stages of the Second Crusade. Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153) prevented the carnage from being worse by preaching throughout Germany that the Jews were not to be persecuted. Yet in spite of his pleas, many Jews were murdered and others were forced to flee from their homes.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1147 THE SECOND CRUSADE ENDS IN DEFEAT
Although the West earned substantial victories in the Holy Land during the First Crusade, Muslim power continued to increase. Following a terrible massacre in December 1144, the Latin state of Edessa, established to the east of Antioch, fell to the Turks. The ruin of Edessa raised concerns about the permanence of the Latin kingdom in Jerusalem. With the Holy Land under renewed threat, Louis VII (1120-1180) of France and Roman Emperor Conrad III (1093-1152) led forces to the Holy Land for the Second Crusade in 1147. To raise support, Pope Eugenius III (d. 1153) summoned Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153) to leave his monastery and rally support for the crusade. Bernard's enthusiastic and fervent message successfully inspired the participation of many soldiers. In spite of their objective to regain Edessa and conquer Damascus, the Second Crusade ended in utter defeat at Damascus.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1150 UNIVERSITIES OF PARIS AND OXFORD ARE FOUNDED
The University of Paris and the University of Oxford were both founded around 1150 and quickly became centers of learning in the Middle Ages. Receiving approval from political rulers and numerous popes, the University of Paris became famous primarily because of its schools for the arts and theology. The University of Oxford was a theological and philosophical school. Unlike the University of Paris and other schools in Europe, the University of Oxford emphasized undergraduate studies and developed a college system for the study of a variety of subjects. Oxford, which enjoyed a faithful alliance with the church, was less restricted by the power of the church than was Paris. Both universities were main centers for religious training.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1158 PETER LOMBARD COMPLETES FOUR BOOKS OF SENTENCES
Peter Lombard (1095-1169), an Italian theologian who taught in Notre Dame's cathedral school in Paris, wrote Four Books of Sentences (Libri quatuor sententiarum) in about 1158. A textbook of sorts, it articulated church doctrines and practices, supporting each with quotations from Scripture and writings of early church fathers as well as contemporary Christian thinkers such as Peter Abelard (1079-1142). It addressed the nature of God, man's sinful nature, man's redemption through Christ, and the sacraments. Lombard was one of the first to teach that there were seven sacraments, nearly three hundred years before that number was officially decreed. In addition, his ability to organize texts and to avoid extremes was noteworthy. Lombard's work became a standard text on Roman Catholic doctrine in the universities of Europe and influenced many into the 1600s. In England alone, 180 commentaries were written on it.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1159 MAIMONIDES LEAVES SPAIN
Maimonides (1135-1204), one of the most revered Jewish sages, was born in Cordoba, Spain, and was the son of a Jewish judge named Maimon. Maimonides' family was one of many that fled the Almohad persecution in approximately 1159, when Maimonides was still a young man. Persecution of Jews and Christians in Spain had begun around 1146 as a fanatical Moroccan Islamic group known as the Almohads gained control of Spain. The persecution was particularly trying for the Jewish population, because prior to the attack, the Jews had enjoyed a fruitful relationship with Muslims. The persecution brought about the end of the rich Jewish culture in Spain, and like others, Maimonides fled first to Morocco and then to Palestine. He finally settled in Egypt, where he became the most famous Jewish scholar of the Islamic age.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1162 THOMAS BECKET IS APPOINTED ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY
Born to a merchant family in London, Thomas Becket (c. 1118-1170) became chancellor to King Henry II (1133-1189) of England in 1154. Owing to their agreement on most issues, Becket and King Henry became good friends and drinking partners. In 1162, the archbishop of Canterbury died, and Henry, anxious to gain control of the church, nominated his loyal chancellor as the new archbishop. To Henry's great surprise, Becket immediately adopted the disciplines of his new religious role and began to live a pious and sober life. Becket's new devotion to the faith greatly affected Henry's ability to control the church from his secular throne. Despite King Henry's efforts to expand his authority, Becket would not allow it. Eventually murdered for his resistance to the king, Becket's loyalty to the church was a source of encouragement to many and became an example to later Christians struggling with problems of church and state.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1166 BENJAMIN OF TUDELA BEGINS TRAVELS IN DIASPORA Benjamin (1127-1173) of Tudela (in modern-day northwestern Spain) was a Jew who spent at least five years, beginning in 1166, traveling among the various communities of the Jewish Diaspora during the twelfth century. The Diaspora was the dispersion of Jews outside the land of Israel beginning with the Babylonian captivity and continued by Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) and the Romans after the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70. Benjamin was a fearless voyager and visited Jews in Damascus, Lebanon, Syria, Persia, Greece, India, and Iraq. He recorded details concerning their numbers, businesses, social conditions, factors in their environment, battles, and their city life. Each of Benjamin's voyages produced a wealth of information used by historians today to better understand the population and culture of various twelfth-century Jewish communities.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1171 JEWISH COMMUNITY OF BLOIS IS DESTROYED
The first blood libel, or ritual murder, accusation against the Jews in continental Europe occurred on May 26, 1171, in Blois, France. All fifty-one Jewish residents of the town were dragged to a wooden tower where they were given the option of Christian baptism or death. They all chose death and were burned alive. They chanted a Hebrew hymn as they died.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1173 PETER WALDO FOUNDS THE WALDENSES
In 1173, Peter Waldo (1150-1218), a wealthy merchant in Lyons, France, gave away his riches to the poor and began a life of voluntary poverty as a preacher. His disciples, who called themselves the Poor Men of Lyons, came to be known as the Waldenses. One of the unique marks of Waldo's preaching was his use of a French translation of the Bible, instead of the Latin Vulgate. The Waldenses, despite repeated confessions of orthodox faith, were eventually branded heretics. Though they would not renounce their vows of poverty, in the face of persecution many renewed their commitment to the church. Waldo and his followers were medieval forerunners of the Protestant Reformation. The Waldenses still exist today, primarily in Italy.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1176 THE BENEFIT OF THE CLERGY IS CREATED THEN ABOLISHED
In 1176, King Henry II (1133-1189) of England granted what became known as the Benefit of the Clergy. It stipulated that clergy and nuns would no longer be tried in secular courts but only in church courts, with their lesser punishments. These benefits were later expanded by King Edward III (1327-1377) to include literate laity on their first offense. As time passed and corruption increased, this benefit became more and more abused so that by the time of the sixteenth-century English Reformation, the Benefit of the Clergy was restricted. It was completely abolished in 1827.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1179 THIRD LATERAN COUNCIL CONVENES
In 1179, Pope Alexander III (1105-1181) convened the Third Lateran Council at the basilica church of St. John Lateran in Rome and renewed interest in the study of church law. At the Third Lateran Council he issued a decree that a two-thirds majority of cardinals was required to elect a pope, and a majority was necessary for decisions in religious communities. Another decree called for the founding of cathedral schools.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1182 MARONITES BECOME A UNIATE CHURCH
The churches of Eastern Christianity that are unified with the Roman Catholic Church are known as Uniate churches. These churches usually conduct mass in their own language and keep church law according to their own traditions. The Maronites of Syria took their name from Maron, a solitary monk who died in about 423. In 1182, they entered into an unstable relationship with the Roman Catholic Church, becoming a Uniate church. The only Roman Catholic Church in the East, Maronites use the Syriac language in their liturgy. Presently, the Maronites are the largest Christian church in Lebanon.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1187 SALADIN CAPTURES JERUSALEM
Appointed caliph in 1174, Saladin (1138-1193) controlled the region from Damascus, Syria, to the Nile. With his ability to unite his fellow Muslims, Saladin was determined to conquer Jerusalem. On July 5, 1187, the definitive battle was fought in the village of Hattin, on the hill where tradition sets the preaching of the Sermon on the Mount. The Muslim forces won a decisive victory over the Crusaders, killing some thirty thousand Christian soldiers. To his credit, Saladin's entry into the defeated Jerusalem on October 2, 1187, was not marked by the butchery that occurred during the Crusaders' conquering of Jerusalem ninety years earlier.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1189 THE THIRD CRUSADE IS THE CRUSADE OF KINGS
Following the capture of Jerusalem from the Crusaders by Saladin (1138-1193), the Third Crusade was organized in 1189. Led by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa (1122-1190), Richard I (1157-1199) of England, and Philip II (1165-1223) of France, it became known as the Crusade of Kings. After Frederick was drowned along the way, Philip and Richard fell into contention and went on to the Holy Land separately. Philip started the battle for Acre, today's Akko, and then returned home, leaving Richard to lead the fight for the Holy Land alone. Under Richard, the Crusaders recaptured Acre, but were unsuccessful in reaching Jerusalem, having to settle for a three-year truce with Muslims that allowed Christian pilgrims safe passage to Jerusalem. Known as Richard the Lion-hearted, Richard was an excellent warrior but an arrogant king, who made enemies wherever he went.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1190 JEWS ARE MASSACRED IN YORK
Beginning with the First Crusade, toward the end of the eleventh century, the formerly stable relations between Jews and Christians were significantly jeopardized. The violent and widespread massacres of Jews in the Rhineland during both the First and Second Crusades terrorized all of the Jews living outside the land of Israel. The earlier actions of the Crusaders led many of the Jews of York, England, to commit mass suicide in 1190, fearing an attack by soldiers similar to that of the Third Crusade. Those who survived were massacred by crusading warriors. To this day the terrible fate of the Jews in York is remembered each week in synagogues throughout Europe.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1192 JOACHIM OF FIORE ESTABLISHES THE ORDER OF SAN GIOVANNI
While on pilgrimage to the Holy Land, a young Cistercian monk named Joachim (1135-1202) received a vision that shaped his life, his beliefs, and his writings. He believed that there were three overlapping eras representing the Father (Adam to Christ), the Son (King Uzziah to the year 1260), and the Holy Spirit (St. Benedict to the end of the world). Joachim moved to Fiore, Italy, in 1192 and established the order of San Giovanni (St. John). During this period, he wrote Concordance to the New and Old Testaments, Exposition of the Apocalypse, and Psaltery of Ten Strings. Although the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 and the Synod of Aries in 1263 declared Joachim's theories heretical, his writings had noticeable influence on medieval reformers such as the Spiritual Franciscans.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1198 INNOCENT III BECOMES POPE
Having studied in Paris and at the University of Bologna, Giovanni Lotario de' Conti (1160-1216) was appointed as cardinal deacon at the age of thirty. During his tenure in that position, he wrote On the Contempt of the World, encouraging the practice of contemplation and asceticism. The book became popular throughout Europe, and in 1198, he was unanimously elected pope, becoming Pope Innocent III. A man of keen intellect, he successfully positioned the church to dominate all human relationships. His leadership in matters of church doctrine and practice were perhaps even more significant. The most powerful of the medieval popes, Innocent's crowning achievement was his convening of the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215, the decrees of which shaped church policy for centuries.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
Bernard (1090-1153) grew up in a noble French family. Shortly after joining a Cistercian monastery, he moved to Clairvaux, France, in 1115 and established a new monastery there. Though devoted to the ascetic life at Clairvaux, Bernard became immersed in the political activities of his day. Bernard believed, as outlined in his Twelve Steps to Humility, that all Christians should focus on the soul, emptying it of worldly desires and achieving final union with God. He supported the Second Crusade but was also respected for his goodness, self-discipline, and personal charm. Considered by some to be the greatest medieval master of language, Bernard is honored by both Protestants and Catholics today. His beloved hymns include "Jesus, the Very Thought of Thee" and "O Sacred Head Now Wounded."
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1119 POPE CALLISTUS II WRITES BULL DEFENDING JEWS
In 1119, Pope Callistus II (1050-1124) issued a historic papal bull, Sicut Judaeis, defending the Jewish population throughout Europe. Callistus' defense came in response to the violence rained upon the Jews in the Rhineland during the First Crusade (1096). During his rule, Pope Gregory I (540-604) had made a similar attempt to protect the Jews. The terrible attack on Jews at the end of the eleventh century caused Callistus to reinforce the church's condemnation of violently attempting to convert Jews to Christianity. Throughout the next four centuries this papal decree was reissued more than twenty times. Sicut Judaeis granted the Jews "the shield of [the church's] protection" and declared "that no Christian shall use violence to force [Jews] into baptism."
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1122 CONCORDAT OF WORMS ENDS INVESTITURE CONTROVERSY
Pope Nicholas II (1010-1061) in 1059 and Pope Gregory VII (1023-1085) in 1075 prohibited lay investiture, the practice of laymen appointing clerics to office. Gregory's ruling was repeated in 1076, 1078, and 1080, and was upheld by subsequent popes. The Concordat of Worms confirmed the decision in 1122. While the church won the battle of investiture, the emperor and other lay rulers still maintained a varying degree of control over church appointments.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1122 PETER ABELARD WRITES SIC AND NON
French philosopher, theologian, and teacher Peter Abelard (1079-1142) was an inventive thinker whose lectures attracted large crowds. His pupils included Peter Lombard (1095-1169), an Italian theologian, and many other great thinkers of the twelfth century. While teaching in Paris, Abelard roomed at the home of Fulbert, the canon of Notre Dame, and agreed to tutor Fulbert's niece, Heloise (1101-1164). Abelard and Heloise soon fell in love, and in 1116 Heloise gave birth to their son, Astrolabe. Abelard married Heloise secretly, but she joined a convent to protect Abelard's career. Fulbert was furious and had Abelard castrated. Abelard rose above the scandal and continued to be a popular lecturer. His most famous book was Sic and Non, in which he compared the contradictory statements between the Bible and the church fathers.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1123 LATERAN COUNCIL RATIFIES THE CONCORDAT OF WORMS Held in the Church of St. John Lateran in Rome, the first of five Lateran Councils was summoned by Pope Callistus II (1050-1124) in 1123. The primary task of the council was to authenticate the Concordat of Worms, written in 1122, thereby signaling the end of the investiture controversy by condemning lay investiture, the practice that allowed rulers to make ecclesiastical appointments. In the spirit of Pope Gregory VII (Hildebrand) (1023-1085), many of the laws addressed reforms that affected ordinations and the appointing of church offices as well as making an attempt to curb the sale of indulgences.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1139 SECOND LATERAN COUNCIL RULES ON CHURCH REFORMS Summoned by Pope Innocent II (d. 1143) in 1139, the Second Lateran Council held at the Church of St. John Lateran in Rome was concerned with church reform. The council prohibited the clergy from receiving payment for extreme unction and burial, from studying secular law or medicine, from marrying, and from using crossbows.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1141 BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX DENOUNCES ABELARD AT THE COUNCIL OF SENS
The Council of Sens, held in 1141, was one of many councils held in Sens, France, to examine charges of heresy brought against Peter Abelard (1079-1142) by Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153). Abelard, a popular lecturer, was accused of having a deficient view of the Trinity. He, in return, accused Bernard of instituting unconventional practices at Clairvaux. Unable to persuade Abelard to retract, Bernard came to Sens determined to condemn Abelard for heresy. Abelard refused to defend himself and appealed his case to Pope Innocent II (d. 1143). The pope, however, declared Abelard to be a heretic and sentenced him to perpetual silence and banishment.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1141 HILDEGARD OF BINGEN BEGINS WRITING
German mystic, abbess, and author, Hildegard (1098-1179) reported her first vision from God when she was only three years old. Her parents sent her to a Benedictine convent for her education where, in 1141, Hildegard shared her revelations with her friends and superiors. Amazed by her gift, the women convinced Hildegard to record her visions. The resulting volume, Scivias, became a classic of medieval mystic literature. In her time Hildegard was regarded as a prophetess by the pope and other church authorities. One of her supporters, Bernard of Clairvaux, (1090-1153), had a lifelong correspondence with her, discussing many things including the need for reform within the church. Hildegard's writings cover topics ranging from science and medicine to hymnology and the lives of the saints.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1144 FIRST ACCUSATION OF BLOOD LIBEL OCCURS IN ENGLAND
Throughout the Middle Ages, the accusation of blood libel—the rumor that Jews murder Gentiles to use their blood for religious rituals—was used as a pretense for the persecution and murder of Jews. The first instance of this practice was in 1144 near Norwich, England. Several Jewish leaders were arrested and executed on the charge that they had kidnapped a local child. They were accused of crucifying the boy, stabbing his head to imitate Jesus' crown of thorns, and then using his blood as part of their Passover celebration. In 1247, the Roman Catholic Church officially declared the blood libel charges to be false; however, many continued to falsely accuse Jews of this gruesome practice. The Nazis revived blood libel rumors during their intense persecution of the Jews in the 1930s and 1940s.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1147 CRUSADERS MASSACRE JEWS IN RHINELAND FOR THE SECOND TIME
Just like the First Crusade of 1096, attacks on the Jews of the Rhineland characterized the early stages of the Second Crusade. Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153) prevented the carnage from being worse by preaching throughout Germany that the Jews were not to be persecuted. Yet in spite of his pleas, many Jews were murdered and others were forced to flee from their homes.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1147 THE SECOND CRUSADE ENDS IN DEFEAT
Although the West earned substantial victories in the Holy Land during the First Crusade, Muslim power continued to increase. Following a terrible massacre in December 1144, the Latin state of Edessa, established to the east of Antioch, fell to the Turks. The ruin of Edessa raised concerns about the permanence of the Latin kingdom in Jerusalem. With the Holy Land under renewed threat, Louis VII (1120-1180) of France and Roman Emperor Conrad III (1093-1152) led forces to the Holy Land for the Second Crusade in 1147. To raise support, Pope Eugenius III (d. 1153) summoned Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153) to leave his monastery and rally support for the crusade. Bernard's enthusiastic and fervent message successfully inspired the participation of many soldiers. In spite of their objective to regain Edessa and conquer Damascus, the Second Crusade ended in utter defeat at Damascus.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1150 UNIVERSITIES OF PARIS AND OXFORD ARE FOUNDED
The University of Paris and the University of Oxford were both founded around 1150 and quickly became centers of learning in the Middle Ages. Receiving approval from political rulers and numerous popes, the University of Paris became famous primarily because of its schools for the arts and theology. The University of Oxford was a theological and philosophical school. Unlike the University of Paris and other schools in Europe, the University of Oxford emphasized undergraduate studies and developed a college system for the study of a variety of subjects. Oxford, which enjoyed a faithful alliance with the church, was less restricted by the power of the church than was Paris. Both universities were main centers for religious training.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1158 PETER LOMBARD COMPLETES FOUR BOOKS OF SENTENCES
Peter Lombard (1095-1169), an Italian theologian who taught in Notre Dame's cathedral school in Paris, wrote Four Books of Sentences (Libri quatuor sententiarum) in about 1158. A textbook of sorts, it articulated church doctrines and practices, supporting each with quotations from Scripture and writings of early church fathers as well as contemporary Christian thinkers such as Peter Abelard (1079-1142). It addressed the nature of God, man's sinful nature, man's redemption through Christ, and the sacraments. Lombard was one of the first to teach that there were seven sacraments, nearly three hundred years before that number was officially decreed. In addition, his ability to organize texts and to avoid extremes was noteworthy. Lombard's work became a standard text on Roman Catholic doctrine in the universities of Europe and influenced many into the 1600s. In England alone, 180 commentaries were written on it.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1159 MAIMONIDES LEAVES SPAIN
Maimonides (1135-1204), one of the most revered Jewish sages, was born in Cordoba, Spain, and was the son of a Jewish judge named Maimon. Maimonides' family was one of many that fled the Almohad persecution in approximately 1159, when Maimonides was still a young man. Persecution of Jews and Christians in Spain had begun around 1146 as a fanatical Moroccan Islamic group known as the Almohads gained control of Spain. The persecution was particularly trying for the Jewish population, because prior to the attack, the Jews had enjoyed a fruitful relationship with Muslims. The persecution brought about the end of the rich Jewish culture in Spain, and like others, Maimonides fled first to Morocco and then to Palestine. He finally settled in Egypt, where he became the most famous Jewish scholar of the Islamic age.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1162 THOMAS BECKET IS APPOINTED ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY
Born to a merchant family in London, Thomas Becket (c. 1118-1170) became chancellor to King Henry II (1133-1189) of England in 1154. Owing to their agreement on most issues, Becket and King Henry became good friends and drinking partners. In 1162, the archbishop of Canterbury died, and Henry, anxious to gain control of the church, nominated his loyal chancellor as the new archbishop. To Henry's great surprise, Becket immediately adopted the disciplines of his new religious role and began to live a pious and sober life. Becket's new devotion to the faith greatly affected Henry's ability to control the church from his secular throne. Despite King Henry's efforts to expand his authority, Becket would not allow it. Eventually murdered for his resistance to the king, Becket's loyalty to the church was a source of encouragement to many and became an example to later Christians struggling with problems of church and state.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1166 BENJAMIN OF TUDELA BEGINS TRAVELS IN DIASPORA Benjamin (1127-1173) of Tudela (in modern-day northwestern Spain) was a Jew who spent at least five years, beginning in 1166, traveling among the various communities of the Jewish Diaspora during the twelfth century. The Diaspora was the dispersion of Jews outside the land of Israel beginning with the Babylonian captivity and continued by Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) and the Romans after the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70. Benjamin was a fearless voyager and visited Jews in Damascus, Lebanon, Syria, Persia, Greece, India, and Iraq. He recorded details concerning their numbers, businesses, social conditions, factors in their environment, battles, and their city life. Each of Benjamin's voyages produced a wealth of information used by historians today to better understand the population and culture of various twelfth-century Jewish communities.
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1171 JEWISH COMMUNITY OF BLOIS IS DESTROYED
The first blood libel, or ritual murder, accusation against the Jews in continental Europe occurred on May 26, 1171, in Blois, France. All fifty-one Jewish residents of the town were dragged to a wooden tower where they were given the option of Christian baptism or death. They all chose death and were burned alive. They chanted a Hebrew hymn as they died.
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1173 PETER WALDO FOUNDS THE WALDENSES
In 1173, Peter Waldo (1150-1218), a wealthy merchant in Lyons, France, gave away his riches to the poor and began a life of voluntary poverty as a preacher. His disciples, who called themselves the Poor Men of Lyons, came to be known as the Waldenses. One of the unique marks of Waldo's preaching was his use of a French translation of the Bible, instead of the Latin Vulgate. The Waldenses, despite repeated confessions of orthodox faith, were eventually branded heretics. Though they would not renounce their vows of poverty, in the face of persecution many renewed their commitment to the church. Waldo and his followers were medieval forerunners of the Protestant Reformation. The Waldenses still exist today, primarily in Italy.
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1176 THE BENEFIT OF THE CLERGY IS CREATED THEN ABOLISHED
In 1176, King Henry II (1133-1189) of England granted what became known as the Benefit of the Clergy. It stipulated that clergy and nuns would no longer be tried in secular courts but only in church courts, with their lesser punishments. These benefits were later expanded by King Edward III (1327-1377) to include literate laity on their first offense. As time passed and corruption increased, this benefit became more and more abused so that by the time of the sixteenth-century English Reformation, the Benefit of the Clergy was restricted. It was completely abolished in 1827.
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1179 THIRD LATERAN COUNCIL CONVENES
In 1179, Pope Alexander III (1105-1181) convened the Third Lateran Council at the basilica church of St. John Lateran in Rome and renewed interest in the study of church law. At the Third Lateran Council he issued a decree that a two-thirds majority of cardinals was required to elect a pope, and a majority was necessary for decisions in religious communities. Another decree called for the founding of cathedral schools.
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1182 MARONITES BECOME A UNIATE CHURCH
The churches of Eastern Christianity that are unified with the Roman Catholic Church are known as Uniate churches. These churches usually conduct mass in their own language and keep church law according to their own traditions. The Maronites of Syria took their name from Maron, a solitary monk who died in about 423. In 1182, they entered into an unstable relationship with the Roman Catholic Church, becoming a Uniate church. The only Roman Catholic Church in the East, Maronites use the Syriac language in their liturgy. Presently, the Maronites are the largest Christian church in Lebanon.
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1187 SALADIN CAPTURES JERUSALEM
Appointed caliph in 1174, Saladin (1138-1193) controlled the region from Damascus, Syria, to the Nile. With his ability to unite his fellow Muslims, Saladin was determined to conquer Jerusalem. On July 5, 1187, the definitive battle was fought in the village of Hattin, on the hill where tradition sets the preaching of the Sermon on the Mount. The Muslim forces won a decisive victory over the Crusaders, killing some thirty thousand Christian soldiers. To his credit, Saladin's entry into the defeated Jerusalem on October 2, 1187, was not marked by the butchery that occurred during the Crusaders' conquering of Jerusalem ninety years earlier.
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1189 THE THIRD CRUSADE IS THE CRUSADE OF KINGS
Following the capture of Jerusalem from the Crusaders by Saladin (1138-1193), the Third Crusade was organized in 1189. Led by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa (1122-1190), Richard I (1157-1199) of England, and Philip II (1165-1223) of France, it became known as the Crusade of Kings. After Frederick was drowned along the way, Philip and Richard fell into contention and went on to the Holy Land separately. Philip started the battle for Acre, today's Akko, and then returned home, leaving Richard to lead the fight for the Holy Land alone. Under Richard, the Crusaders recaptured Acre, but were unsuccessful in reaching Jerusalem, having to settle for a three-year truce with Muslims that allowed Christian pilgrims safe passage to Jerusalem. Known as Richard the Lion-hearted, Richard was an excellent warrior but an arrogant king, who made enemies wherever he went.
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1190 JEWS ARE MASSACRED IN YORK
Beginning with the First Crusade, toward the end of the eleventh century, the formerly stable relations between Jews and Christians were significantly jeopardized. The violent and widespread massacres of Jews in the Rhineland during both the First and Second Crusades terrorized all of the Jews living outside the land of Israel. The earlier actions of the Crusaders led many of the Jews of York, England, to commit mass suicide in 1190, fearing an attack by soldiers similar to that of the Third Crusade. Those who survived were massacred by crusading warriors. To this day the terrible fate of the Jews in York is remembered each week in synagogues throughout Europe.
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1192 JOACHIM OF FIORE ESTABLISHES THE ORDER OF SAN GIOVANNI
While on pilgrimage to the Holy Land, a young Cistercian monk named Joachim (1135-1202) received a vision that shaped his life, his beliefs, and his writings. He believed that there were three overlapping eras representing the Father (Adam to Christ), the Son (King Uzziah to the year 1260), and the Holy Spirit (St. Benedict to the end of the world). Joachim moved to Fiore, Italy, in 1192 and established the order of San Giovanni (St. John). During this period, he wrote Concordance to the New and Old Testaments, Exposition of the Apocalypse, and Psaltery of Ten Strings. Although the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 and the Synod of Aries in 1263 declared Joachim's theories heretical, his writings had noticeable influence on medieval reformers such as the Spiritual Franciscans.
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1198 INNOCENT III BECOMES POPE
Having studied in Paris and at the University of Bologna, Giovanni Lotario de' Conti (1160-1216) was appointed as cardinal deacon at the age of thirty. During his tenure in that position, he wrote On the Contempt of the World, encouraging the practice of contemplation and asceticism. The book became popular throughout Europe, and in 1198, he was unanimously elected pope, becoming Pope Innocent III. A man of keen intellect, he successfully positioned the church to dominate all human relationships. His leadership in matters of church doctrine and practice were perhaps even more significant. The most powerful of the medieval popes, Innocent's crowning achievement was his convening of the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215, the decrees of which shaped church policy for centuries.
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