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1200 SCHOLASTICISM IS POPULARIZED BY UNIVERSITIES
The founding of the major European universities (Paris, Oxford, Pisa, Bologna, and Salerno) propelled scholasticism to the forefront of Christian learning. The movement was essentially the application of Aristotle's philosophy to Christian thought. The Scholastics endeavored to unite faith and reason into one coherent system. Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109), Peter Abelard (1079-1142), Peter Lombard (1095-1169), and Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) were some of the most prominent Scholastics. Thomas taught that reason is sufficient to determine what God is not, and after eliminating what it is impossible for God to be, man is then able to know what God is. He declared that if Christian revelation and reason seem to conflict, revelation amends reason, not vice versa. In the following centuries humanism and the Reformation destroyed Scholasticism's idea of synthesis.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1202 POPE INNOCENT III CLAIMS POWER OVER SECULAR RULERS
Pope Innocent III (1160-1216), an effective statesman, began his reign by reorganizing the management of Rome. He was granted the right to choose the senator who ruled Rome and to receive an oath of allegiance from him. He desired to be the supreme authority in international affairs and the guardian of unity throughout the Christian world. After Germany's rule over Italy collapsed with the death of the German emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, Henry IV (1050-1106), Innocent III was able to revive and expand the Papal States and to prevent the unification of Italy. In 1202, after his first choice for emperor attacked Italy, Innocent issued his famous letter, Venerabilem, which maintained the pope's right to accept or reject any recently elected emperor, thereby giving the pope ultimate control of the imperial throne.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1202 CONSTANTINOPLE SACKED DURING FOURTH CRUSADE
In 1202, Pope Innocent III (1160-1216) called for the Fourth Crusade to recapture Jerusalem. However, the few knights who responded to the call were unable to pay the passage fees demanded by the Venetians. A compromise was reached wherein the campaigners agreed to attack Constantinople, the capital of Eastern Christendom, in exchange for passage to Jerusalem. Unfortunately, after sacking the city, the Crusaders forgot about their original mission to the Holy Land and, instead, set up Latin rule in Constantinople. Though this achieved a temporary union between the Eastern and Western churches, the union was merely superficial and eventually led to Eastern Christians' resentment of Rome. In the end, conquering Constantinople served only to undermine the Eastern Empire's value as a defense against the continued attacks of Islam.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1209 FRANCIS OF ASSISI RENOUNCES WEALTH
Christened Giovanni but nicknamed Francesco by his father, a wealthy textile merchant, Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) experienced a comfortable childhood. As a young man he worked for his father and joined the military. During an illness, Francis began to reflect on his life. In 1205, he journeyed to Rome where he was so struck by the plight of a beggar that he gave the man his clothes. Traveling back to Assisi, Francis had a vision of God. However, upon arrival home in 1208, he was disowned by his father, who believed Francis was insane. During a morning mass the following year (1209), Francis was convicted by Jesus' command for the disciples to leave everything (Matthew 10:9-19). He took up a life of voluntary poverty and set out to preach the gospel. Though not by Francis' intent, his actions inspired many and the Franciscan order was born.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1209 A CRUSADE IS DECLARED AGAINST THE ALBIGENSIANS
The Albigensians believed in two gods: "Truth," the god of light, was derived from the New Testament, and "Error," the god of darkness, was derived from the Old Testament. The Albigensians did not believe in hell, thinking instead that unsaved souls would transmigrate into lower animals. When representatives of Count Raymond VI of Toulouse (1156-1222), a major advocate of the Albigensian cause, murdered an official emissary of Pope Innocent III (1160-1216), a crusade was launched against the Albigensians in the Provence region of France in 1209. The Albigensian Crusade crushed the heretics and Provence as well.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1212 CHILDREN FORM CRUSADE ARMIES
In 1212, tens of thousands of children as young as six years old from western Europe set out to reclaim the Holy Land. Inspired by the preaching of a French boy named Stephen who said that Christ had appeared to him, the children formed groups and set out for Jerusalem. They believed that God would certainly return the city to innocent children. After reaching Genoa, Italy, and being refused passage to the Holy Land some returned to their homes. Others traveled on to Rome, where the pope told them to return home. Some went to Marseilles, France, where they were shipped to North Africa and sold as slaves
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1215 KING JOHN ISSUES THE MAGNA CARTA
On June 15, 1215, at Runnymede, southwest of London, King John (1167— 1216) of England issued the Magna Carta, meaning "Great Charter." The charter granted greater power to the curia regis, the feudal assembly that later became the British Parliament, and limited royal power. King John agreed to consult the assembly before instituting new taxes and to allow accused lawbreakers to be tried by a group from their own social class. Also, the assembly was granted authority to depose the king if he violated the charter. However, the document limited these rights to the aristocracy. The Magna Carta became the foundation for present-day English law. It also became the foundation of most constitutional forms of government, including that of the United States, creating stable governments under which the gospel could flourish.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1215 FOURTH LATERAN COUNCIL ISSUES DECREES
The Fourth Lateran Council, convened in 1215 by Innocent III (1160-1216), the powerful medieval pope, confirmed the election of Frederick II (1194— 1250) as emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and denounced the Magna Carta. The council articulated the doctrine of transubstantiation, the belief that Christ is physically present in the bread and wine of the mass. It confirmed the Franciscan order but decreed that no new monastic orders were to be founded. It also decreed that Jews and Muslims were to wear distinctive dress, and it made provision for the upcoming Fifth Crusade. Covering the political, religious, and social arenas of thirteenth-century Europe, the council had profound and lasting effects on both church law and everyday life.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1220 DOMINIC ESTABLISHES ORDER OF PREACHERS
While serving as a prior, noble-born Dominic (1170-1221) witnessed the Albigensian heresy firsthand in southern France. Moved with compassion, Dominic initiated a preaching ministry to the Albigensians, a dualistic group that believed Truth was the god of the New Testament, and Error was the god of the Old Testament. Dominic lived a mendicant lifestyle, often preaching barefoot. A gifted organizer, he founded the Dominican Order to multiply his ministry of preaching the gospel.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1226 LOUIS IX BECOMES KING OF FRANCE
Louis IX (1214-1270) became king of France at the age of twelve. Deeply spiritual and ascetic, he avoided many of the luxuries enjoyed by other kings, choosing instead to build churches and hospitals. Louis also negotiated a treaty ceding land back to England, which he believed to have been unfairly acquired by previous French rulers. He used his political skills to limit the rights of nobles, increasing royal control. In 1248, he launched the Seventh Crusade, which was directed at Damietta, Egypt, where he was captured and later ransomed. Then in 1270, he led the Eighth (and final) Crusade. It was directed against Tunis in North Africa, where he died of a fever. Louis' piety, policies of fairness, and modest lifestyle led many Frenchmen to consider him the model Christian king. His reign is regarded as the apex of the French medieval monarchy, and the Roman Catholic Church canonized him in 1297.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1229 CRUSADERS NEGOTIATE THE RETURN OF JERUSALEM
In September 1228, eight years after becoming emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, Frederick II (1194-1250), king of Germany and Sicily, arrived in the Middle East to lead the Fifth Crusade. Finding the Muslim rulers of Egypt and Damascus in conflict, Frederick, known for his diplomacy with Christians and Muslims alike, negotiated a treaty with the Egyptian sultan Al-Kameel (r. 1218-1238). In 1219, Al-Kameel had offered William of Holland (1168-1222) the exchange of Jerusalem for territory at the mouth of the Nile River, but William was unsuccessful in completing the negotiations. Desiring peaceful relations, Frederick sought success where William had failed. Despite objections from the church, Frederick negotiated a ten-year treaty with Egypt that gave Christians dominion over Jerusalem (with the exception of the mosque of Omar), Bethlehem, Nazareth, and one pilgrimage route. On March 18, 1229, Frederick staged a coronation for himself in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher to celebrate the return of Jerusalem.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1232 BOOKS OF MAIMONIDES ARE BURNED IN MONTPELLIER
In the thirteenth century, efforts were made to undermine Judaism as a theological system. When Arabic-speaking Jews fled Almohad persecution in Spain beginning in about 1146, many went to Provence, France. They brought with them their broad philosophical training and what the traditional Provencal Jews saw as worldly manners. The philosophical works of Maimonides (1135-1204), written in Arabic, were controversial within the Jewish community. In 1232, members of the Dominican monastic order, who were in charge of eliminating Christian heresy, publicly burned the books of Maimonides in Montpellier, France.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1233 POPE GREGORY IX APPOINTS FIRST "INQUISITORS"
Despite earlier efforts by Pope Innocent III (1160-1216) to eliminate Albigensians, believers in a New Testament god of light and an Old Testament god of darkness, many followers remained in the mid-1220s. Following in the footsteps of his uncle Innocent III, Pope Gregory IX (1170-1241) asked Louis IX (1214-1270) to engage in another crusade against the sect. However, increased Albigensian presence in Spain and Italy particularly concerned Gregory, so he established an inquisition. A close friend of Francis of Assisi (1182-1226), Gregory appointed Franciscan and Dominican monks in 1233 to be the first "inquisitors." Hoping to obtain fair and principled judgment, Gregory became the first pope to contend with heresy through a formal church inquisition.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1242 KING JAMES I OF ARAGON FORCES JEWS TO CONVERT Although Jews were allowed to live alongside Christians in Spain, in 1242, King James I (1208-1276) of the Spanish kingdom of Aragon signed a decree demanding that all Jews submit to the evangelistic preaching of the Dominican and Franciscan monks. Pope Innocent IV (1200-1254) followed James I's edict with similar commands to the monastic orders. James and Innocent commanded monks to preach in synagogues and civil officials to force Jews out of their homes to listen to the sermons. They both felt the use of force was appropriate to make the Jews comply. No longer hidden, the church's desire to be rid of Judaism was violently obvious.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1242 THE TALMUD IS BURNED IN PARIS
Catholic scholars found the Jewish Talmud offensive because of passages derogatory to Jesus and to Christianity. In 1236, a Jewish convert named Nicholas Donin testified before Pope Gregory IX (1170-1241) that the Talmud was heretical and blasphemous. As a result, Gregory condemned the Talmud, officially instructing the kings and church leaders of Europe to expose its secrets. King Louis IX of France (1214-1270) was the only monarch to respond to the pope's call. On June 25, 1240, a public debate commenced in Paris that was, in fact, a trial. Nicholas Donin, now a Franciscan, acted as prosecutor and a Jewish rabbi as defendant. As a result of the proceedings, the Talmud was declared heretical, and all the copies of it in Paris were collected and burned in 1242. The mountain of books was so high that it took a day and a half for them to burn.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1245 FIRST COUNCIL OF LYONS CONVENES
In 1245, Pope Innocent IV (1200-1254) convened the First Council of Lyons, or the thirteenth ecumenical council. Held in three sessions, the assembly looked to solve five problems afflicting Innocent: the misconduct of the clergy, the fall of Jerusalem, the control of the Byzantine Empire, the Mongol assaults in Europe, and the persecution of the church and of Innocent himself by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II (1194-1250). The conflict between Frederick and Innocent originated in the excommunication of Frederick by Pope Gregory IX (1170-1241), for his failure to lead a crusade as promised. Attempting to thwart the council, Frederick had blocked all routes to Lyons and prohibited his imperial clergy from attending. The Council voted to depose Frederick and recommended another crusade to claim Jerusalem, but no action was taken to carry out the decree.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1255 INNOCENT JEWS ARE CONVICTED OF BLOOD LIBEL
One of the most infamous incidents of Jewish slaughter as a result of accusations of blood libel occurred in Lincoln, England, in 1255. Blood libel was the superstition that Jews killed non-Jews, especially children, and used their victims' blood in religious rituals. In Lincoln about 1246, a poor woman named Beatrice gave birth to a son she named Hugh. In 1255, his body was found at the bottom of a well of a Jew named Copin. Copin and more than one hundred Jews were accused of scourging the boy, crowning him with thorns, and then crucifying him. Copin was sentenced to a cruel death and eighteen other Jews were hanged. Ninety more were imprisoned in London but were released upon payment of a large fine. In The Canterbury Tales, English poet Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400) memorialized the accusation of blood libel in Lincoln.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1263 NAHMANIDES LOSES DISPUTATION IN BARCELONA
As persecution of Jews increased in the thirteenth century, Jewish society, religion, and practices were scrutinized throughout Europe. Among the most well-known public debates during this period was the 1263 disputation in Barcelona. Under the influence of Dominican monks and Hebrew Christian Pablo Christiani, the debate was held on July 20, 1263, and moderated by King James I (1208-1276) of Aragon, one of two Christian states in Spain. Defending the Jewish faith was Rabbi Moses ben Nahman, or Nahmanides (1194-1270) (also known as the Ramban), a leader at a Jewish academy in Aragon. Although Nahmanides lost the debate, the king was impressed with his argumentation and enabled him to escape to Palestine. The Jews left behind were forced to attend Dominican sermons.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1265 THOMAS AQUINAS BEGINS SUMMA THEOLOGIAE
Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) was a Dominican monk who spent much of his life teaching in Paris. He wrote his principal work, Summa Theologiae, as a guide for instruction in undergraduate theological studies. Begun in 1265, Summa Theologiae is a systematic examination of the theological, philosophical, and moral issues of Aquinas' day. Its three major parts (focused on God, Man, and Christ) are organized according to the Scholastic method: Questions are posed and broken down into "articles," which then are individually addressed. Believing that reason and revelation supplement reading of Scripture, Aquinas used Christian thinkers and Aristotle in addition to the Bible to build his arguments. Unfortunately, due to illness in 1273, Aquinas was forced to discontinue his Summa Theologiae. Largely as a result of his Summa, Aquinas is known as the greatest philosopher and theologian of the medieval church.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1269 KUBLAI KHAN ASKS POPE TO SEND CHRISTIAN TEACHERS TO CHINA In 1269, two Italian merchants, the Polo brothers, arrived in Acre on the coast of the Mediterranean with a letter from Kublai Khan (1214-1294), ruler of China's Mongol Empire. The letter requested that the pope send one hundred teachers to China so that the Chinese could study the science and religion of Europe. In 1271, the Polo brothers and one son, Marco (1254-1324), started back to China accompanied reluctantly by two Dominican monks. The perils of the journey, however, caused the monks to return to Europe. Less than ten years later when the rumor reached Europe that Kublai had been baptized, the pope dispatched five more monks, but they never got farther than Persia.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1274 SECOND COUNCIL OF LYONS ASSEMBLES The Second Council of Lyons—the fourteenth ecumenical council—assembled in 1274. The council, convened by Pope Gregory X (1210-1276), consisted of sixteen hundred clergy, including five hundred bishops and sixty abbots. Gregory hoped to organize another crusade to liberate Jerusalem, but because of his inability to establish peace in Europe, European kings refused to rally to his cause. The assembly did achieve a nominal reunion with the Orthodox Church and issued several new canons. Among them was the decision that, to avoid long intervals between popes, the cardinals could wait only ten days following the death of a pope before going into deliberation, and would forego salaries until a new pope was elected.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1280 MOSES DE LEON COMPOSES THE CORE OF THE KABBALAH A form of Jewish mysticism known as the kabbalah arose in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Among those who contributed to the religious and intellectual style of kabbalah was Moses de Leon (1240-1305). De Leon composed the majority of the Zohar, a multivolume work that includes a commentary on the To-rah. His writings develop the idea that the stories and laws found in Scripture create a map or pattern for God. De Leon believed that a holy life, marked by an accurate execution of rituals, allowed humanity to reinstate God's perfect order. By the sixteenth century, the Zohar was read far and wide and remains at the core of kabbalah practice.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1290 JEWS ARE EXPELLED FROM ENGLAND Following official condemnation of the Talmud by Pope Gregory IX (1170— 1241) in 1236, criticism of Jews increased and Jewish communities began to be displaced throughout Western Europe. King Edward I (1239-1307) of England issued a declaration in 1275, canceling all debts owed to Jews and forbidding Jews from making any further loans to non-Jews. Because money lending was a major business of the Jews, this decree significantly limited their ability to make a living. In addition, Edward arrested a number of Jewish leaders, demanding a ransom before releasing them. Finally, in 1290, King Edward expelled all Jews from England, confiscating all their assets for himself.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1291 CRUSADER PRESENCE IN PALESTINE ENDS Between 1095 and 1270, eight major crusades attempted to drive Muslim forces out of the Holy Land and their strategic fortresses. Although the early crusades were successful, the later crusades were marked by failure, bickering, and tragedy. In 1291, al-Ashraf Khalil (r. 1290-1293), the Muslim sultan reigning in Cairo, Egypt, led an army to the last Christian stronghold in the Holy Land, the city of Acre on the Mediterranean coast. Although Pope Nicholas IV (1227-1292) had sent a mercenary army to protect the city, the Muslim armies drove the Christians out of Acre with little resistance. The fall of Acre marked the end of the Crusader era. Although some efforts were made to attempt another crusade, none were successful. As a result of the Crusades, European feudalism and papal power were weakened, but the Muslims were permanently imprinted with the brutal image of Christianity left by the Crusaders.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1294 JOHN OF MONTE CORVINO ARRIVES IN CHINA
In 1289, John of Monte Corvino (1247-1330), an Italian Franciscan monk experienced in missions, was dispatched to China by Pope Nicholas IV (1227-1292). He carried with him a letter for Kublai Khan (1214-1294), who had previously requested that the pope send missionaries. Traveling through Persia and India, John eventually made his way to the Mongolian capital of Khanbalik (Peking) in 1294, where the Mongolian ruler Khan Timor Olcheitu welcomed him. John successfully established a mission northwest of Khanbalik, in Tenduk. It was the first Franciscan mission in China. He later built three churches, translated Psalms and the New Testament into Chinese, and directed a native boys' choir that was popular with the Mongols. Through John's efforts, six thousand people converted to Roman Catholicism.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
The founding of the major European universities (Paris, Oxford, Pisa, Bologna, and Salerno) propelled scholasticism to the forefront of Christian learning. The movement was essentially the application of Aristotle's philosophy to Christian thought. The Scholastics endeavored to unite faith and reason into one coherent system. Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109), Peter Abelard (1079-1142), Peter Lombard (1095-1169), and Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) were some of the most prominent Scholastics. Thomas taught that reason is sufficient to determine what God is not, and after eliminating what it is impossible for God to be, man is then able to know what God is. He declared that if Christian revelation and reason seem to conflict, revelation amends reason, not vice versa. In the following centuries humanism and the Reformation destroyed Scholasticism's idea of synthesis.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1202 POPE INNOCENT III CLAIMS POWER OVER SECULAR RULERS
Pope Innocent III (1160-1216), an effective statesman, began his reign by reorganizing the management of Rome. He was granted the right to choose the senator who ruled Rome and to receive an oath of allegiance from him. He desired to be the supreme authority in international affairs and the guardian of unity throughout the Christian world. After Germany's rule over Italy collapsed with the death of the German emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, Henry IV (1050-1106), Innocent III was able to revive and expand the Papal States and to prevent the unification of Italy. In 1202, after his first choice for emperor attacked Italy, Innocent issued his famous letter, Venerabilem, which maintained the pope's right to accept or reject any recently elected emperor, thereby giving the pope ultimate control of the imperial throne.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1202 CONSTANTINOPLE SACKED DURING FOURTH CRUSADE
In 1202, Pope Innocent III (1160-1216) called for the Fourth Crusade to recapture Jerusalem. However, the few knights who responded to the call were unable to pay the passage fees demanded by the Venetians. A compromise was reached wherein the campaigners agreed to attack Constantinople, the capital of Eastern Christendom, in exchange for passage to Jerusalem. Unfortunately, after sacking the city, the Crusaders forgot about their original mission to the Holy Land and, instead, set up Latin rule in Constantinople. Though this achieved a temporary union between the Eastern and Western churches, the union was merely superficial and eventually led to Eastern Christians' resentment of Rome. In the end, conquering Constantinople served only to undermine the Eastern Empire's value as a defense against the continued attacks of Islam.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1209 FRANCIS OF ASSISI RENOUNCES WEALTH
Christened Giovanni but nicknamed Francesco by his father, a wealthy textile merchant, Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) experienced a comfortable childhood. As a young man he worked for his father and joined the military. During an illness, Francis began to reflect on his life. In 1205, he journeyed to Rome where he was so struck by the plight of a beggar that he gave the man his clothes. Traveling back to Assisi, Francis had a vision of God. However, upon arrival home in 1208, he was disowned by his father, who believed Francis was insane. During a morning mass the following year (1209), Francis was convicted by Jesus' command for the disciples to leave everything (Matthew 10:9-19). He took up a life of voluntary poverty and set out to preach the gospel. Though not by Francis' intent, his actions inspired many and the Franciscan order was born.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1209 A CRUSADE IS DECLARED AGAINST THE ALBIGENSIANS
The Albigensians believed in two gods: "Truth," the god of light, was derived from the New Testament, and "Error," the god of darkness, was derived from the Old Testament. The Albigensians did not believe in hell, thinking instead that unsaved souls would transmigrate into lower animals. When representatives of Count Raymond VI of Toulouse (1156-1222), a major advocate of the Albigensian cause, murdered an official emissary of Pope Innocent III (1160-1216), a crusade was launched against the Albigensians in the Provence region of France in 1209. The Albigensian Crusade crushed the heretics and Provence as well.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1212 CHILDREN FORM CRUSADE ARMIES
In 1212, tens of thousands of children as young as six years old from western Europe set out to reclaim the Holy Land. Inspired by the preaching of a French boy named Stephen who said that Christ had appeared to him, the children formed groups and set out for Jerusalem. They believed that God would certainly return the city to innocent children. After reaching Genoa, Italy, and being refused passage to the Holy Land some returned to their homes. Others traveled on to Rome, where the pope told them to return home. Some went to Marseilles, France, where they were shipped to North Africa and sold as slaves
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1215 KING JOHN ISSUES THE MAGNA CARTA
On June 15, 1215, at Runnymede, southwest of London, King John (1167— 1216) of England issued the Magna Carta, meaning "Great Charter." The charter granted greater power to the curia regis, the feudal assembly that later became the British Parliament, and limited royal power. King John agreed to consult the assembly before instituting new taxes and to allow accused lawbreakers to be tried by a group from their own social class. Also, the assembly was granted authority to depose the king if he violated the charter. However, the document limited these rights to the aristocracy. The Magna Carta became the foundation for present-day English law. It also became the foundation of most constitutional forms of government, including that of the United States, creating stable governments under which the gospel could flourish.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1215 FOURTH LATERAN COUNCIL ISSUES DECREES
The Fourth Lateran Council, convened in 1215 by Innocent III (1160-1216), the powerful medieval pope, confirmed the election of Frederick II (1194— 1250) as emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and denounced the Magna Carta. The council articulated the doctrine of transubstantiation, the belief that Christ is physically present in the bread and wine of the mass. It confirmed the Franciscan order but decreed that no new monastic orders were to be founded. It also decreed that Jews and Muslims were to wear distinctive dress, and it made provision for the upcoming Fifth Crusade. Covering the political, religious, and social arenas of thirteenth-century Europe, the council had profound and lasting effects on both church law and everyday life.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1220 DOMINIC ESTABLISHES ORDER OF PREACHERS
While serving as a prior, noble-born Dominic (1170-1221) witnessed the Albigensian heresy firsthand in southern France. Moved with compassion, Dominic initiated a preaching ministry to the Albigensians, a dualistic group that believed Truth was the god of the New Testament, and Error was the god of the Old Testament. Dominic lived a mendicant lifestyle, often preaching barefoot. A gifted organizer, he founded the Dominican Order to multiply his ministry of preaching the gospel.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1226 LOUIS IX BECOMES KING OF FRANCE
Louis IX (1214-1270) became king of France at the age of twelve. Deeply spiritual and ascetic, he avoided many of the luxuries enjoyed by other kings, choosing instead to build churches and hospitals. Louis also negotiated a treaty ceding land back to England, which he believed to have been unfairly acquired by previous French rulers. He used his political skills to limit the rights of nobles, increasing royal control. In 1248, he launched the Seventh Crusade, which was directed at Damietta, Egypt, where he was captured and later ransomed. Then in 1270, he led the Eighth (and final) Crusade. It was directed against Tunis in North Africa, where he died of a fever. Louis' piety, policies of fairness, and modest lifestyle led many Frenchmen to consider him the model Christian king. His reign is regarded as the apex of the French medieval monarchy, and the Roman Catholic Church canonized him in 1297.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1229 CRUSADERS NEGOTIATE THE RETURN OF JERUSALEM
In September 1228, eight years after becoming emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, Frederick II (1194-1250), king of Germany and Sicily, arrived in the Middle East to lead the Fifth Crusade. Finding the Muslim rulers of Egypt and Damascus in conflict, Frederick, known for his diplomacy with Christians and Muslims alike, negotiated a treaty with the Egyptian sultan Al-Kameel (r. 1218-1238). In 1219, Al-Kameel had offered William of Holland (1168-1222) the exchange of Jerusalem for territory at the mouth of the Nile River, but William was unsuccessful in completing the negotiations. Desiring peaceful relations, Frederick sought success where William had failed. Despite objections from the church, Frederick negotiated a ten-year treaty with Egypt that gave Christians dominion over Jerusalem (with the exception of the mosque of Omar), Bethlehem, Nazareth, and one pilgrimage route. On March 18, 1229, Frederick staged a coronation for himself in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher to celebrate the return of Jerusalem.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1232 BOOKS OF MAIMONIDES ARE BURNED IN MONTPELLIER
In the thirteenth century, efforts were made to undermine Judaism as a theological system. When Arabic-speaking Jews fled Almohad persecution in Spain beginning in about 1146, many went to Provence, France. They brought with them their broad philosophical training and what the traditional Provencal Jews saw as worldly manners. The philosophical works of Maimonides (1135-1204), written in Arabic, were controversial within the Jewish community. In 1232, members of the Dominican monastic order, who were in charge of eliminating Christian heresy, publicly burned the books of Maimonides in Montpellier, France.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1233 POPE GREGORY IX APPOINTS FIRST "INQUISITORS"
Despite earlier efforts by Pope Innocent III (1160-1216) to eliminate Albigensians, believers in a New Testament god of light and an Old Testament god of darkness, many followers remained in the mid-1220s. Following in the footsteps of his uncle Innocent III, Pope Gregory IX (1170-1241) asked Louis IX (1214-1270) to engage in another crusade against the sect. However, increased Albigensian presence in Spain and Italy particularly concerned Gregory, so he established an inquisition. A close friend of Francis of Assisi (1182-1226), Gregory appointed Franciscan and Dominican monks in 1233 to be the first "inquisitors." Hoping to obtain fair and principled judgment, Gregory became the first pope to contend with heresy through a formal church inquisition.
—Complete Book of When and Where, The
1242 KING JAMES I OF ARAGON FORCES JEWS TO CONVERT Although Jews were allowed to live alongside Christians in Spain, in 1242, King James I (1208-1276) of the Spanish kingdom of Aragon signed a decree demanding that all Jews submit to the evangelistic preaching of the Dominican and Franciscan monks. Pope Innocent IV (1200-1254) followed James I's edict with similar commands to the monastic orders. James and Innocent commanded monks to preach in synagogues and civil officials to force Jews out of their homes to listen to the sermons. They both felt the use of force was appropriate to make the Jews comply. No longer hidden, the church's desire to be rid of Judaism was violently obvious.
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1242 THE TALMUD IS BURNED IN PARIS
Catholic scholars found the Jewish Talmud offensive because of passages derogatory to Jesus and to Christianity. In 1236, a Jewish convert named Nicholas Donin testified before Pope Gregory IX (1170-1241) that the Talmud was heretical and blasphemous. As a result, Gregory condemned the Talmud, officially instructing the kings and church leaders of Europe to expose its secrets. King Louis IX of France (1214-1270) was the only monarch to respond to the pope's call. On June 25, 1240, a public debate commenced in Paris that was, in fact, a trial. Nicholas Donin, now a Franciscan, acted as prosecutor and a Jewish rabbi as defendant. As a result of the proceedings, the Talmud was declared heretical, and all the copies of it in Paris were collected and burned in 1242. The mountain of books was so high that it took a day and a half for them to burn.
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1245 FIRST COUNCIL OF LYONS CONVENES
In 1245, Pope Innocent IV (1200-1254) convened the First Council of Lyons, or the thirteenth ecumenical council. Held in three sessions, the assembly looked to solve five problems afflicting Innocent: the misconduct of the clergy, the fall of Jerusalem, the control of the Byzantine Empire, the Mongol assaults in Europe, and the persecution of the church and of Innocent himself by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II (1194-1250). The conflict between Frederick and Innocent originated in the excommunication of Frederick by Pope Gregory IX (1170-1241), for his failure to lead a crusade as promised. Attempting to thwart the council, Frederick had blocked all routes to Lyons and prohibited his imperial clergy from attending. The Council voted to depose Frederick and recommended another crusade to claim Jerusalem, but no action was taken to carry out the decree.
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1255 INNOCENT JEWS ARE CONVICTED OF BLOOD LIBEL
One of the most infamous incidents of Jewish slaughter as a result of accusations of blood libel occurred in Lincoln, England, in 1255. Blood libel was the superstition that Jews killed non-Jews, especially children, and used their victims' blood in religious rituals. In Lincoln about 1246, a poor woman named Beatrice gave birth to a son she named Hugh. In 1255, his body was found at the bottom of a well of a Jew named Copin. Copin and more than one hundred Jews were accused of scourging the boy, crowning him with thorns, and then crucifying him. Copin was sentenced to a cruel death and eighteen other Jews were hanged. Ninety more were imprisoned in London but were released upon payment of a large fine. In The Canterbury Tales, English poet Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400) memorialized the accusation of blood libel in Lincoln.
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1263 NAHMANIDES LOSES DISPUTATION IN BARCELONA
As persecution of Jews increased in the thirteenth century, Jewish society, religion, and practices were scrutinized throughout Europe. Among the most well-known public debates during this period was the 1263 disputation in Barcelona. Under the influence of Dominican monks and Hebrew Christian Pablo Christiani, the debate was held on July 20, 1263, and moderated by King James I (1208-1276) of Aragon, one of two Christian states in Spain. Defending the Jewish faith was Rabbi Moses ben Nahman, or Nahmanides (1194-1270) (also known as the Ramban), a leader at a Jewish academy in Aragon. Although Nahmanides lost the debate, the king was impressed with his argumentation and enabled him to escape to Palestine. The Jews left behind were forced to attend Dominican sermons.
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1265 THOMAS AQUINAS BEGINS SUMMA THEOLOGIAE
Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) was a Dominican monk who spent much of his life teaching in Paris. He wrote his principal work, Summa Theologiae, as a guide for instruction in undergraduate theological studies. Begun in 1265, Summa Theologiae is a systematic examination of the theological, philosophical, and moral issues of Aquinas' day. Its three major parts (focused on God, Man, and Christ) are organized according to the Scholastic method: Questions are posed and broken down into "articles," which then are individually addressed. Believing that reason and revelation supplement reading of Scripture, Aquinas used Christian thinkers and Aristotle in addition to the Bible to build his arguments. Unfortunately, due to illness in 1273, Aquinas was forced to discontinue his Summa Theologiae. Largely as a result of his Summa, Aquinas is known as the greatest philosopher and theologian of the medieval church.
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1269 KUBLAI KHAN ASKS POPE TO SEND CHRISTIAN TEACHERS TO CHINA In 1269, two Italian merchants, the Polo brothers, arrived in Acre on the coast of the Mediterranean with a letter from Kublai Khan (1214-1294), ruler of China's Mongol Empire. The letter requested that the pope send one hundred teachers to China so that the Chinese could study the science and religion of Europe. In 1271, the Polo brothers and one son, Marco (1254-1324), started back to China accompanied reluctantly by two Dominican monks. The perils of the journey, however, caused the monks to return to Europe. Less than ten years later when the rumor reached Europe that Kublai had been baptized, the pope dispatched five more monks, but they never got farther than Persia.
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1274 SECOND COUNCIL OF LYONS ASSEMBLES The Second Council of Lyons—the fourteenth ecumenical council—assembled in 1274. The council, convened by Pope Gregory X (1210-1276), consisted of sixteen hundred clergy, including five hundred bishops and sixty abbots. Gregory hoped to organize another crusade to liberate Jerusalem, but because of his inability to establish peace in Europe, European kings refused to rally to his cause. The assembly did achieve a nominal reunion with the Orthodox Church and issued several new canons. Among them was the decision that, to avoid long intervals between popes, the cardinals could wait only ten days following the death of a pope before going into deliberation, and would forego salaries until a new pope was elected.
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1280 MOSES DE LEON COMPOSES THE CORE OF THE KABBALAH A form of Jewish mysticism known as the kabbalah arose in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Among those who contributed to the religious and intellectual style of kabbalah was Moses de Leon (1240-1305). De Leon composed the majority of the Zohar, a multivolume work that includes a commentary on the To-rah. His writings develop the idea that the stories and laws found in Scripture create a map or pattern for God. De Leon believed that a holy life, marked by an accurate execution of rituals, allowed humanity to reinstate God's perfect order. By the sixteenth century, the Zohar was read far and wide and remains at the core of kabbalah practice.
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1290 JEWS ARE EXPELLED FROM ENGLAND Following official condemnation of the Talmud by Pope Gregory IX (1170— 1241) in 1236, criticism of Jews increased and Jewish communities began to be displaced throughout Western Europe. King Edward I (1239-1307) of England issued a declaration in 1275, canceling all debts owed to Jews and forbidding Jews from making any further loans to non-Jews. Because money lending was a major business of the Jews, this decree significantly limited their ability to make a living. In addition, Edward arrested a number of Jewish leaders, demanding a ransom before releasing them. Finally, in 1290, King Edward expelled all Jews from England, confiscating all their assets for himself.
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1291 CRUSADER PRESENCE IN PALESTINE ENDS Between 1095 and 1270, eight major crusades attempted to drive Muslim forces out of the Holy Land and their strategic fortresses. Although the early crusades were successful, the later crusades were marked by failure, bickering, and tragedy. In 1291, al-Ashraf Khalil (r. 1290-1293), the Muslim sultan reigning in Cairo, Egypt, led an army to the last Christian stronghold in the Holy Land, the city of Acre on the Mediterranean coast. Although Pope Nicholas IV (1227-1292) had sent a mercenary army to protect the city, the Muslim armies drove the Christians out of Acre with little resistance. The fall of Acre marked the end of the Crusader era. Although some efforts were made to attempt another crusade, none were successful. As a result of the Crusades, European feudalism and papal power were weakened, but the Muslims were permanently imprinted with the brutal image of Christianity left by the Crusaders.
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1294 JOHN OF MONTE CORVINO ARRIVES IN CHINA
In 1289, John of Monte Corvino (1247-1330), an Italian Franciscan monk experienced in missions, was dispatched to China by Pope Nicholas IV (1227-1292). He carried with him a letter for Kublai Khan (1214-1294), who had previously requested that the pope send missionaries. Traveling through Persia and India, John eventually made his way to the Mongolian capital of Khanbalik (Peking) in 1294, where the Mongolian ruler Khan Timor Olcheitu welcomed him. John successfully established a mission northwest of Khanbalik, in Tenduk. It was the first Franciscan mission in China. He later built three churches, translated Psalms and the New Testament into Chinese, and directed a native boys' choir that was popular with the Mongols. Through John's efforts, six thousand people converted to Roman Catholicism.
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